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ARMEN
AFFAIRS

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

A JOURNAL ON ARMENIAN STUDIES

Editor
Charles A. Vertanes

Board of. Editorial Advisers

Harootiun Asdourian

History

Cordoba, Argentina

Henry A. Atkinson

Current Affairs

A. A. Bedikian

History and Literature

Zabelle G. Boyajian

Art and Literature

London, England

Lawson p. Chambers

Philosophy

Washington University

H. M. Dadourian

Science and Current Affairs

Trinity College
KoREN Der Harootian

Sculpture

Sirarpie Der Nersessian

Art and Archeology

Harvard University

Frederick L. Fagley

Current Affairs

Arsen Goergizian

Church History and Current Affairs

Vahan Hagopian

Architecture

Vahe Haig

Literature

Archbishop Karekin

Literature and E^cclesiastical History
Buenos Aires, Argentina

Emil Lengyel

Turkey and the Near East

New York University

Bishop Sion Manoogian

Current History

Bishop Tiran Nersoyan

Church History

Abraham A. Neuman

Near East History

Dropsie College for Hebrew and

Cognate Learning

Reinhold Niebuhr

Religion and International Affairs

Union Theological Seminary

Peniamin Noorigian

Literature

Ernest Partridge

Education and Missions

A. Safrastian

Archeology and History
London, England

Joseph B. Schechtman

Current History and the Near East

Robert W. Searle

Social and Political Affairs

Moushegh Seropian

History, Literature and Current Affairs

Nicosia, Cyprus

K. Sitae

Poetry

Mihrtad Tiryakian

Philology, Literature and History

Carl Hermann Voss

Religion and International Affairs

Jane S. Wingate

Folk Literature

Editorial Associates

Armine Dikijian

Harry Haroutunian

Correspondents

Ed^vard V. Gulbenkian

Great Britain

Caro a. Martin

India, Pakistan, and the Far East

Hrant S. Rshduni
Hungary

Noubar Maxoudian

Cyprus

Vartan Melkonian

Iraq

Armenian Affairs, a quarterly, published by the Armenian National Council of
America, 144 E. 24th Street, New York 10, N. Y. Subscription, $5.00 per year; single
issues, $1.50 per copy.

Authors are responsible for opinions expressed in their articles. Members of the editorial
advisory board assume responsibility only for opinions expressed in articles signed by them,
•^^^zoo Copyright 1950.

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Spring, 1950 Vol. I, No. 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Appeal of Georg VI [130]

Frontispiece —

Georg VIj Catholicos and Patriarch of All the Armenians [1311

Cyril II, late Patriarch of Jerusalem [1321

Alice Stone Blackwell, Friend of the Armenian People [1331

Banquet in Honor of Alice Stone Blackwell, 1903 [1341

Alice Stone Blackwell — A Symposium Charles A. Vertanes 135

A Biographical Sketch Maud Wood Park

Relations with Armenians M. C. Gismegian

Interest in Armenia's Political Destiny

A Tribute Samuel A. Eliot

A Sonnet William Lloyd Garrison, Jr.

Armenians As I Have Known Them Alice Stone Blackwell

The Lake of Van (Poem) Raffi

Notes on the Evolution of Armenia's Architecture Vahan Hagopian 151

Literary Pilgrimages to Armenia

From America to Armenia K. Sital 159

From Moscow to Yerevan A. Arsharuni 166

A Brief Sketch of Armenian History Vazkene Aykouni 176

Briefs

The Comedy of Life — "Uucle Geer" G. Eksoozian 185

Tribute to Armenians Thomas A. Sparks^ S.T.D. 188

Theodore Roosevelt and Armenia Ashag Mahdesian 190

Reports

The Internationalization of Jerusalem and the Armenian Patriarchate 193

Letter Regarding the New Jerusalem Plan 197

Biographical Sketches

His Beatitude Cyril II, Arshag Mahdesian, Artak Darbinian,

and Leon Guerdan A. Meliksetian 199

Book Reviews

Country Without Economic Backbone ...i : Emil Lengyel 206

The Armenian Question in Paris in 1919 C. P. IVES

Letters to the Editor 210

Documents

Testimony of the Armenian National Council on Genocide : 215

Bibliography : .-. 223

Books Received 227

Illustrated Supplement [229]

The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem —

Serovpe Vardapet Manoukian

CALL TO PEACE

Of the Supreme Patriarch-Catholicos of All the Armenians

To the long-suffering Armenian people, who have lived through endless series
of tortures and terrors in the past, there has been no greater desire than long-lasting
peace. The Armenian Holy Apostolic Church, one of the oldest churches in the
world, has always prayed for human welfare and the peace of the world. In the
present complex political situation when humanity faces the nightmare of a world
war which will demand the sacrifice of new millions, the Armenian Church, faithful
to her traditional principles, raises her voice in the name of peace and joins whole-
heartedly in the resolutions passed at the Stockholm session of the World Congress
of the Friends of Peace.

Supreme Patriarch-Catholicos of all the Armenians Georg VI
Supreme Spiritual Council of Echmiadzin

It was reported by Reuters from London on August 5 that the leaders of the Churches in
the Soviet Union — Patriarch Alexei of Moscow and all Russia, Patriarch Catholicos Kalistrat
of all Georgia and Patriarch Catholicos Georg of all Armenia — had conferred in Tbilisi,
Georgia, when they issued a "peace appeal" to Christians throughout the world.

The appeal to peace of these Soviet church dignitaries is simply one manifestation of a
world-wide movement for peace on the part of Christian churches and church leaders.
The World Council of Churches which met at Geneva in February of this year condemned
the H-bomb as a "sin against God" and urged the Council's member churches to press their
national governments for the international control of all weapons of mass destruction. In
response to this appeal the Fedel^ation of Protestant. Churches of Switzerland voted to
present to the Swiss Government the text of the World Council's statement on the hydrogen
bomb, urging it "to use its moral authority" as a neutral power "to remove the menace of
random mechanized armaments."

The Council of Kerk en Vrede in Holland, an interconfessional organization, in a recent
appeal directed^ to the Dutch Nation, urged Christians in the Netherlands to "break free from
the anti-Christian faith in brute force," and oppose the militarization of their country."
Similarly the National Synod of the Reformed Church of France at its meeting at Nimes,
June 2-5, demanded that immediate action be taken urging "the renunciation of the whole
principle of intangible national sovereignties . . . and complete disarmament" by the various
Governments and the United Nations, "beginning with bacteriological and atomic weapons."

The Ecumenical Committee of the Hungarian Protestant Churches in Budapest asked
that the World Council of Churches call upon the UN and all national governments to
"prohibit atomic arid bacterial warfare at once" and to "start negotiations to solve all inter-
national controversies as well as to achieve general disarmament." Memorial services were
held to the same end in churches in the United States and in other countries throughout
the world on the fifth anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.

A group of Roman Catholic personalities and clergymen in France, including Abbe
Jean Boulier, also issued a statement in which they expressed approval "of all efforts made
in every country to develop a will for peace throughout the world and in particular . . .
of the Stockholm Appeal." The Pope, in an encyclical on July 19, addressed himself to the
heads of Governments to make every effort for the attainment of a "true peace," for war
brmgs ' nothmg other than ruins, death and every kind of misery. With the passage of time
such murderous and inhuman weapons have been introduced and developed that not only
armies and navies, not only cities, hamlets and villages, not only treasures of religion, or
art and of culture can be exterminated but even innocent children with their mothers, 'the
sick and the undefended old people. Everything beautiful, good and holy that the genius
of man has produced, everything or nearly everything can be annihilated."

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Alice Stone Blackwell

(1857-1950)
A Symposium
By Charles A. Vertanes

There was nothing vague or obscure in her thinking. . . . She dwelt
in no neutral zone. . . . She was well assured that what is morally wrong
can never be politically right. Courage and confidence were the good
angels that dwelt with her and through her breathed a benediction
on us all.

— Samuel A. Eliot

Introduction

T a gathering of distinguished men and women on Thursday, May 11, the
late Alice Stone Blackwell was honored when her portrait^ was presented to the
Boston University Women's Council and hung in the Louise Holman Fisk House.

Tributes were paid this famous woman graduate of Boston University by
Mrs. Everett O. Fisk, founder and first president of the Council; Mrs. Maud
Wood Park, first president of the National League of Women Voters and co-
worker with Miss Blackwell in the long years of suffrage campaigns ; and Bishop
Lewis O. Hartman, editor of the ^ion's Herald in the early years when Miss
Blackwell was a contributor.

Presentation of the portrait to the Council President, Mrs. Lewis O. Hart-
man, was made by Mrs. Guy W. Stantial (Edna Lamprey Stantial), long-time
friend and confidante of Miss Blackwell.

Mrs. Fisk told of their college days, when as a freshman she met the quiet,
unassuming junior in the College of Liberal Arts. They had belonged to the
same literary society and throughout the years of their intimate friendship had
been associated in the women's groups of their alma mater. She told of the
interest of Miss Blackwell in the oppressed of all nations, of her help through
translation into the English of the poems of the Armenians, the Russians, the
Jews and, last of all, the Latin- American countries.

Bishop Hartman designated Miss Blackwell as "the greatest reformer of
all contemporary women." He recalled her life as a journalist and contributor to
the ^ion's Herald, her work for the Gandhi movement, her devotion to the
Armenians and other peoples, and to the cause of civil liberties.

At the presentation of the portrait Mrs. Stantial observed that all those
present knew "with what great love and reverence the Armenians of America
watched over our dear Miss Blackwell. On every occasion — Easter, birthdays,
Christmas — they sent gifts of cards, flowers and fruit, to remind her of their

ISee frontispiece page [133], for photographic reproduction. Miss Blackwell was born in East
Orange, N. J., Sept. 14, 1857, and died in Cambridge, Mass., March 15, 1950.

135

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

gratitude for her devotion to their people."^ She related how on May 30, 1904
two hundred of Miss Blackwell's Armenian friends met in Faneuil Hall, and
presented the portrait to her. On the platform were such notables as Julia Ward
Howe, Mary A. Livermore, William Lloyd Garrison, Mrs. Susan Fessenden and
Bishop Sarajian.^

Mrs. Stantial then referred to a letter she had recently received from Mr.
C. Levon Ekserjian, son of the portrait painter, in which he had said: "You
may be interested in knowing that Julia Ward Howe not infrequently came to
my father's studio with Miss Blackwell, along with many other of their friends
whose names are now a memory. While my father was at work these fine people
were making plans for their campaigns, always planning for mankind."

When the artist was introduced at the Faneuil Hall meeting, he said : "The
value of this picture is to be attributed to the subject. I put my heart in the
work, enrapt by the sublimeness of the subject. I did my duty and when the
work was finished Miss Blackwell's heart reflected through the depth of her
eyes."

And Miss Blackwell's reply, as she received the gift, was typical: "This
gift gives me a great deal of joy.. But the gift that will please me most is that
every Armenian be a noble Armenian, be the best kind of a citizen and bring
honor to his people."

In a letter to the editor Mrs. Stantial added that Miss Blackwell "was
fond of this portrait because it kept before her always the devotion of her won-
derful Armenian friends. ... I have come to realize, all through my experiences
in raising money for her security and now in the efforts to keep her name and
her family's name alive in the hearts of the people everywhere, how very much
she did mean to all of you and how much you all meant to her. Never in my
life have I seen a record of such devotion, mutual devotion!"

A Biographical Sketch

By Maud Wood Park*

LICE STONE BLACKWELL, more than any other person, symbolized the
whole range of the struggle of women through two generations to win un-
trammeled human status. One of her aunts was the first to be ordained a min-
ister; another was the first woman doctor. Her mother, Lucy Stone, was the
first Massachusetts woman to go to college; became a lecturer against Negro

2See in this connection the article by Dr. H. S. Jelalian, "The Significance of Miss Blackwell's
Birthday for Us." The Armenian Mirror, September 1932, p. 1.
3See photograph of this affair on page 134 of frontispiece.

IMrs. Park first met Miss Blackwell at Radcliffe College where Miss Blackwell converted her to
the suffrage cause. Out of this meeting grew the organization of the National College Suf-
frage League. — Ed.

136

ALICE STONE BLAGKWELL

slavery and for women's rights when mere pubhc speaking by women was con-
sidered an indecency; and throughout her Hfe was one of the half-dozen great
national figures in the women's movement. Her father, Henry B. Blackwell,
gave a lifetime of service to the cause of woman's suffrage. His devotion in the
suffrage and anti-slavery movements made it possible for his family to carry on
their work for the rights of women and for oppressed minorities.

The life of the daughter was inextricably interwoven from babyhood in
the widely varied activities of her parents, which Miss Blackwell recorded in her
book, LuCy Stone, Pioneer of Woman's Rights.^ For thirty-four years Miss Black-
well was assistant editor or editor-in-chief of the Woma7i's Journal,^ founded in
1870 by her famous mother. For twenty-three years she was secretary of the
National American Woman Suffrage Association, a merger of the American and
National Suffrage Associations brought about by her when the two groups were
having difficulty in agreeing on policy and procedure. It was the new organi-
zation which in 1918 secured the passage of the nineteenth amendment to the
Constitution. Miss Blackwell also served as president of the New England and
Massachusetts Woman Suffrage Associations.

As Miss Blackwell's chief weapon was the pen, often anonymous, she was
not personally in the public eye as much as the platform campaigners. But
her work of editing the Woman's Journal and writing for that paper, as well as
innumerable leaflets, articles, newspaper letters, and campaign pamphlets sup-
plied the literature of the movement. Among journalists she was regarded as an
editor of outstanding ability. In the council chamber she applied her rich wis-
dom, vast information, fertile mind and dauntless spirit to mapping out the
strategy which through the years carried the suffrage cause step by step to final
victory.

The instant the ballot was won she took up the task of educating and
organizing the new voters for public-spirited citizenship. She was Honorary
Chairman and an active member of the Massachusetts League of Women
Voters since it organization in 1920.

In line with her family's pioneering interest in the field of women's educa-
tion, she served Boston University, her alma mater, as trustee from 1908 on.'*

Throughout these long years her sensitive humanity has made her responsive
to countless other struggles against oppression. In 1919 she received the Ford

2First edition. Boston, Little Brown and Co., 1930, viii, 313p. Present edition published by
the Alice Stone Blackwell Fund Committee, 21 Ashmont Street, Melrose, Mass. Esther Willard
Bates in a biographical sketch of Miss Blackwell, Providence Bulletin, Providence, R. I.,
March 29, states that the sioffragists called her mother their "Morning Star." — Ed.

^Assisted her father and mother on the Woman's Journal, Boston, 1881-1893, and was editor-
in-chief until 1917, when the Woman Voter and the Headquarters Newsletter were con-
solidated into the Woman Citizen, after which it was published by the National American
Woman Suffrage Association.

*Miss Blackwell was graduated from Boston University in 1881 with the A.B. degree, and was
made a Doctor of Humanities by the same institution in June 1945. She was also a member
of the American Association of University Women, and president of its Boston chapter.

137

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Hall Forum Gold Medal for honored service to humanity.^ Roused by the
Armenian massacres of the '90's, she became a life-long champion of that people.
Among her tireless and varied efforts to win them public understanding and
support she rendered into English verse her well-known volume, Armenian
Poems, which underwent two editions — one in 1896, and the other in 1916.®
Her devotion to Armenia was recognized by the bestowal of the Order of
Melusine.^*

The atrocious oppression of the Tzar's government led her to active work
with the American Friends of Russian Freedom. Her warm cooperation and
friendship with Madam Breshkovsky extended over many years and included the
editing of her autobiography and letters.'^

The struggles of labor equally enlisted her quick sympathies on countless
occasions. Repeatedly she raised her voice against exploitation and the suppres-
sion of free speech, advocating the right to organize, and working for other civil
liberties.

Devoted to world peace, she sought during many years to turn her talents to
its service by promoting cultural appreciation. She rendered into English verse
Songs of Grief, and Gladness^ (from the Yiddish), Songs of Russia,^ the Hungar-
ian poems of Petofi ; and Some Spanish American Poets^^ — the latter a monu-
mental volume of over two hundred poems, opening to North Americans a new
continent of literature.

A noteworthy tribute to the importance of the Woman's Journal was made
by Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, whose wise leadership brought about the adop-
tion of the Woman Suffrage Amendment. She said, "No words can express the
gratitude I feel for the service Miss Blackwell and her dear father and mother
gave to the woman suffrage movement through the Woman's Journal. Without
it we would still be unenfranchised."

Miss Blackwell was the speaker who had the responsibility of replying to the
arguments of the Anti-suffragists at the annual Woman Suffrage hearings before

5She had also been a presidential elector for La FoUette in 1924; and honorary vice-chairman
of the Boston Evening Clinic and Hospital.

^Boston, Roberts Brothers, 1896, xi, 14-142p. "New and enlarged edition," Boston, Atlantic
Printing Co., xii, 295p. Bibliography, pp. 290-291.

SaMelusine, according to an old medieval romance, was the mother of Guy de Lusignan, king
of Jerusalem (1185-1192), and of Cyprus (1192) ; as such related to Armenian history. Ac-
cording to the romance one of her ten sons (only four of whom are known to history) was
king of Armenia. See Sir Algernon T. Tudor-Craig, The Romance of Melusine and de Lusig-
nan, London, The Century House, 1932, pp, v and I. Any information about the "Order" of
Melusine is welcome for publication in later issues of this journal. — Ed.

"^The Little Grandmother of the Russian Revolution, Reminiscensces and Letters of Catherine
Breshkovsky, Boston, Little, Brown and Co., 1917. 348 p.

8 St. Louis, Press of the Modern View, cop. 1907, 76 p. Second ed. revised and enlarged. Bos-
ton, The Williams Co., 1917, xvi, 163 p.
sChicago, The Author, 1906.

K^New York and London, Appleton and Co., 1929, xii, 559 p. She was also co-compiler of
The Yellow Ribbon Speaker, 1911. Present edition, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1937. London, Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press. There is a long biblio-
graphy under her name on the question of Woman's Suffrage.

138

ALICE STONE BLACKWELL

the judiciary committee of the Massachusetts legislature. What she could do in
the twenty minutes allotted to her for rebuttal was almost miraculous. Her
knowledge of facts and her ability to state them briefly and clearly, her logic, her
vast common sense and her unfailing good humor made of each terse sentence a
lightning flash to illumine the black and misleading depths of "anti" eloquence.
A distinguished lawyer once said that he attended the Massachusetts Woman
Suffrage hearings whenever he could because he considered Miss BlackweU's
rebuttal speeches the ablest presentation of controversial matter he had ever
heard. In spite of the ignominious defeats that she had to face for many years,
she went on, tireless in spite of frail health, undaunted, always cheerful.

Once when I told her she was the most heroic person I had ever known, she
laughed and replied, "But I never did anything except what was in the day's
work." That characteristic remark indicates the way she has always taken herself.
If the cause had required that she should be shot at sunrise she would have gone
out into the cold gray dawn as simply and naturally as she had done everything
else. Death, too, would have been in the day's work.

Her courage was not the mere buoyancy of the physically strong to whom
nerves are unknown, but the reasoned, sustained courage of a person forcing her-
self to be brave because bravery was needed to accomphsh the work in hand.

Beneath her gifts as a writer and speaker lay rare devotion, not only to the
woman's movement, but to all causes that strive for justice for human beings of
every race, color and creed. Indeed her sympathy for the suffering was so keen
that it led her to give much time and effort to the prevention of cruelty to
animals.

In the death of Alice Stone Blackwell the world has lost a distinguished
citizen and humanity one of its best friends.

Relations with Armenians^

By M. C. GiSMEGIAN

ISS BLACKWELL devoted her mind and soul to the culture and cause of
the Armenian people from that day when the patriotic and talented Russian
Armenian student, Hovhannes Khachumian arrived in the United States from
Germany with Mrs. I. Barrows, the editor of the Christian Register (Unitarian
weekly published in Boston), whom she had come to know at the University of
Leipzig.

Mrs. Barrows had brought KJiachumian to the United States with the
approval of Catholicos Khrimian, to represent the Armenian Church at the

lAn Armenian version of this article appeared in Baikar, Armenian daily published in Boston,
April 1 and 2, 1950.

139

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

World Congress of Religions to be held in Chicago in 1893. The other member
to represent the Armenian Church was Minas Tcheraz, the well-known Armenian
patriot and editor of UArmenie, published in London.

Mrs. Barrows was already acquainted with the situation in Armenia — the
exploitation to which the Armenians had been subjected and the oppression of
the vile and vicious Turkish government — through Garabed H. Papazian, when
he had visited the editorial office for the first time and suggested that an editorial
be written about the plight of the Armenian people.

Mrs. Barrows introduced Khachumian to Miss Alice Stone Blackwell, then
editor of the Woman's Journal which had a wide circulation among women
intellectuals. Miss Blackwell was inspired by Khachumian's sincere and devoted
personality and his patriotic utterances, and became deeply interested in the
life and cause of the Armenian people. She became acquainted with Armenian
intellectuals and students, and in the midst of her busy life this talented lady
started transcribing into English verse Armenian poetry from the verbatim
English prose of Khachumian and others.

Khachumian, who had studied a year at Harvard University, despite his
busy life, established relations with Armenian students and intellectuals who had
come to the United States, and organized an Armenian students forum. With
his presence, patriotism, enthusiasm and candor he inspired the body of student
emigres. They met once a month, and one of them presented a paper on a
national, historical or political theme, which was followed by a discussion. He
hoped to establish relations between them and the Armenian student body in
Leipzig, Germany, as well as with the body of Russian intellectuals. To this end
Arsen Diran started to correspond with Gregory Ardzrouni's Mshag under the
pen name of "Armen."

Gradually the Armenian students in the United States, whose revolutionary,
patriotic ideals of freedom and independence had been reinforced in this country,
gave themselves to the task of introducing Armenia to the Americans. The
answer to their dream they found in Miss Blackwell, who had by this time made
the support of the Armenian question her aim, and had decided to place her gifts
at its service. The translation of Armenian poetry into English, an excellent
medium of orienting America with the political aspirations and cultural achieve-
ments of the Armenian people, was close to their hearts. It was also found to be
very dear to Miss Blackwell.

The first poem translated was probably R. Patkanian's '''The Banks of the
Araxes River." Mr. Henry B. Blackwell, Miss Blackwell's father, pronounced
Mihran Damadian's "Talvorik" the most beautiful poem in the collection. It
was also intensely revolutionary in spirit. That was the tone of the entire collec-
tion. Under the cruel Turkish policy of oppression, Armenian youth newly
awakened were imbued with the revolutionary spirit, and all the poets and
literary masters sang of their people's sufferings, love of freedom, and determin-
ation to rid themselves of the oppressor. They could not have thought or felt

140

ALICE STONE BLACKWELL

otherwise. In that atmosphere the translations were made ; and the selections
were, therefore, mainly from patriotic and revolutionary poetry.

Miss Blackwell first published these poems in important American news-
papers and periodicals. Later, in 1897, she pubhshed them as a separate volume.
It was republished in 1917, Influential newspapers, individuals and reviewers
were in high praise of Miss Blackwell's translations, acquainting them with
Armenian literature and the Armenian's love of freedom.

To the approximately one hundred and thirty-five translations the following
made literal translations for Miss Blackwell : Hovhannes Khachumian, Garabed
H. Papazian, Minas Tcheraz, Kevork Tourian, Arshag Tchobanian, Harutiun
Asian, Avedis B. Selian, Dr, Varzhabedian, Arsen Diran, Sahag Ghetjian, Aram
Torosian, Karekin Manougian, O. H. Ateshian, Arshag Mahdesian, Bedros A,
Goeljik. Later Vahe Haig and others also contributed.

The poems came from eastern (Russian) and western (Turkish) Armenian
authors, and a number from older writers — Bedros Tourian, Archbishop Khoren
Nar-Bey, R, Patkanian (Kamar Katiba), Adom Yarjanian (Siamanto), Hov-
hannes Hovhannissian, Gatholicos Megrdich Khrimian, Mihran Damadian,
Nahapet Kouchak, Shoushanik Kourghinian, Avetis Aharonian, Nerses Shnor-
hali, Sayat Nova, T. Terzian, S. A. Dodokhian, Arshag Tchobanian, Megrdich
Beshigtashlian, Father Gh.- Alishan, Taniel Varuzhan, Hovhannes Tumanian,
Mrs. Z. Assadoor (Sibil), M. Portoukalian, Arshag Mahdesian, Hacob Melik
Hacobian (Raffi), Avetik Isahakian, Bishop Garegin Servantztiantz, Dikran
Yergat, Ashough Djivani, Grigor Narekatsi, Koucharian and Michael Nalpan-
tian.

In their effort to introduce Armenia to freedom-loving Americans, the
patriotic and revolutionary young Armenian intellectuals did not regard the
translation of Armenian poetry into English sufficient. Through personal ap-
peals and persistent effort they acquainted influential intellectuals with the per-
secutions to which the Armenians were subjected, the brutalities of the Turks, and
the aspirations and right of the Armenians to live as a free people.

The massacre of Sassoun of 1894 shocked Americans as it did the entire
world.

As a result of the efforts of Khachumian, Papazian and Movses Gulezian
the "Friends of Armenia" society was organized under the presidency of the
well-known author, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe^ and a campaign for funds was
launched for the victims. It was sponsored by and received the active support
of outstanding intellectuals, governors, senators and publicists who were fre-
quently present at meetings of public protest and fund raising. Here are a few
of the names of these great Americans: Edward Everett Hale, the famous
preacher ; Edward Clement, the editor of the Boston Transcript ; William Lloyd
Garrison ; Francis Walker, the president of the school of technology ; Bishop

^Note discrepancy as to who was the first president of the "Friends of Armenia" society,
which Miss Blackwell says was Mrs. Isabelle C. Barrows. See p. 150 of this issue of the
journal. — Ed.

141

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Phillips Brooks,^ the great Episcopal ecclesiastic ; Henry B. Blackwell, the father
of Miss Blackwell ; Mr. and Mrs. Samuel J. Barrows ; Dr. Francis Edward Clark,
the organizer and first president of the Christian Endeavor Society. The nerve
and soul and tireless worker in this organization, however, was Miss Blackwell.

All was not clear sailing for the Armenian cause, however. Arsen Diran
wrote in the August 10, 1904 issue of Tsain Hairenyaitz (The Voice of the
Fatherland) : "During that period in America also, attacks against the Ar-
menians and unfavorable opinions concerning their struggle for freedom were
not absent. Papers and individuals purchased by the Turks gave themselves to
the work of that propaganda, against which Miss Blackwell fought with her im-
pressive and concise answers, and she bridled their irresponsible tongues."

After the great carnage of 1895, when the number of the needy Armenians
swelled by the thousands of orphans and widows. Miss Blackwell put her whole
effort into the task of helping them. Wherever a public meeting or campaign
for funds was on, there she was, with her moral supjx)rt and her material con-
tribution.

After the massacre, when Armenian emigres were arriving in the United
States, the Immigration Department required $40,000.00 in bonds. For a
while this requirement distracted the Friends of Armenia, but the great-hearted
Dr. Blackwell voluntarily took upon himself to put up the bond.

Mrs. Barrows and Miss Blackwell left for Germany so that they might
see Hovhannes Khachumian before his death, concerning whose serious illness
they had heard ; but while they were yet on board the ship the news of Khachu-
mian's death arrived. After reaching Germany, Mrs. Barrows attempted to
secure the books and papers of Khachumian. She succeeded only through the
aid of the American embassy, as the Russian ambassador had already taken an
interest in his belongings, Khachumian being a Russian subject.

The two American ladies then returned to England, where they met James
Bryce and other distinguished Englishmen friendly to the Armenians. They
visited also Mihran Damadian and other Armenian revolutionary leaders who
had succeeded in escaping from the Turkish hell by the skin of their teeth.

After collecting much information and books and official documents relat-
ing to the Armenian question, Miss Blackwell returned to the United States and
redoubled her efforts in the interest of the Armenian cause.

On May 30, 1904, the Armenians in the United States organized an honor-
ary dinner on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of Miss Blackwell's activities
on behalf of their cause, under the presidency of Bishop Hovsep Sarajian, on
which occasion she was presented with the portrait of herself painted by Mr.
K. Ekserjian.

The Catholicos, Khrimian Hairig, in appreciation of her great service to the
Armenian people, had sent from Echmiadzin, the seat of the Armenian Church,

^Bishop Brooks' interest in the Armenian cause must precede the massacre of Sassoun of 1894,
as he had died the previous year. — Ed.

142

ALICE STONE BLACKWELL

an encyclical of grace together with a necklace of amber,'* which Miss Blackwell
wore on special occasions and at public functions.

In 1917 when the Armenian question and a United States mandate over
Armenia became important issues of the day, it is difficult to imagine the en-
thusiasm of Miss BlackweU for the new day which seemed to be on the verge
of dawning for her beloved Armenians. At the great International Bazaar in
Boston for the benefit of the needy, in the success of which Mrs. Bertha Papazian
and Alice Stone Blackwell played an important part, Miss Blackwell brought
forth the second edition of her translated poetry.

In 1938 when I went to Boston I visited Miss Blackwell to pay my respects.
She was then living in Cambridge, Mass. She had grown old. Her eyes were
weakened ; but she kept in her mind the brightness and vitality of her youthful
days. She revealed with grief that the necklace of amber had been stolen, and
then added, "Although they have stolen it, the blessing of Khrimian Hairig
still rests upon me."

Armenians are infinitely grateful to the noble lady who gave so freely of
her vigor, heart, mind and purse for ameliorating the sufferings and promoting
the interests of the Armenian people.

III.

Interest in Armenians Political Destiny

NLIKE some other friends whose interest in the plight of the Armenian
people was confined solely to relief measures, Miss Blackwell took "passionate
interest"^ in the political aspects of the Armenian cause. The editor of this
journal was informed some years ago by Mr. Charles V. Vickery, for many
years the executive secretary of the Near East Relief, that he and Mr. Arshag
Mahdesian, the editor of The New Armenia, disagreed at this jx)int. Mah-
desian was bitter over the fact that Vickery and others associated with him were
solely interested in extending relief to the Armenians, and would not help them in
their struggle for political independence which, once achieved would have
made relief unnecessary.

It is significant in this connection that the office of The New Armenia be-
came all but the headquarters of Miss Blackwell.^ The following details are

^The story of how the Catholicos selected this necklace and how it was received by Miss

Blackwell is given by Sahag Chetjian, with whom it was sent to America, in Baikar, March 29,

30, and 31, 1950. Mr. Chetjian also tells the very interesting story of how Mrs. Barrows

first met Hovhannes Khachumian in Leipzig in 1890-1891, how he was led to come to the

United States, how he became instrumental in interesting Miss Blackwell in the Armenian

cause, and other particulars about his life and death in Germany — all as told to him by Miss

Blackwell herself. — Ed.

^So characterized in an editorial in The Nation, March 25, 1950.

2 A. Nourhan, "Alice Stone Blackwell," Eritassard Hayastan, March 29, 1950, p. 1.

143

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

taken from remeniscences of Sahag Chetjian,^ who came to know Miss Black-
well closely during the first decade of this century :

In addition to her interests in the general field of literature and poetry, Miss
Blackwell followed with interest the aims and activities of Armenian and Rus-
sian political parties. She wished to secure objective information on the Rus-
sian socialist revolutionaries and social democrats. She had a great regard for
Mrs. Catherine Breshovsky. When the latter arrived in the United States, Miss
Blackwell established close relations with her and entertained her in her home.
She was always grieved when some calamity beclouded the poHtical future of
the Armenian people. When she learned about the terroristic activities of mis-
guided Armenians in London and Boston, she said with great emotion : "I am
very sorry, they will spoil your reputation abroad."

In 1904 a meeting was organized in Boston by Armenian patriots under
the leadership of Mrs. Barrows and Miss Blackwell, James Bryce was the speaker.
It was in the days of the uprising in Sassoun. Bryce, who spoke on the Armenian
question, had said: You Armenians should never place any hopes in European
diplomacy. Europe will not come to your aid. Be circumspect in demonstra-
tions, otherwise through massacres and other measures you will be decimated in
your own country, and then the Armenian question will cease to exist — there
will not be enough of you to count. Be circumpect and wait for political de-
velopments to become favorable to your cause.

Representatives of the various Armenian political parties were present.
At the conclusion of the meeting, Vramian approached Bryce and protested
vehemently against the point of view expressed in his speech. He then left the
meeting hall. Outside, an argument arose between Vramian, the Armenakans,
and the Reorganized Hunchakians. Among those who spoke were G. Papazian,
Karekin Manougian, and Askanaz Melkonian, They attacked Vramian in-
dignantly, and condemned the uprising of Sassoun. When the rumor of what
was happening outside reached Miss Blackwell inside, she slipped out for fear
the argument might develop into a fight. Fifteen years later Vramian him-
self was advising the Armenians in Van to be circumspect !

In 1906 when the Armenakans brought Portoukalian to the United States
to reorganize their party, they introduced him to Miss Black\7ell. She was much
pleased when she learned that he was also a poet.

Miss Blackwell usually took part in meetings of a cultural character. Know-
ing quite closely the Vaspurakan (Van) Armenians— Karekin Manougian,
Askanaz Melkonian, Dr. Nalchajian, Hovhannes Hagopian — she joined the
Vaspurakan Educational Association. In addition to the usual membership fee
she contributed an annual sum as a gift. She presided at the meetings as honor-
ary chairman. She opened the meeting by praising Khrimian Hairig, pointed to
the necklace of amber which Hairig had given her, and in the midst of the

^Baikar, March 31, 1950, pp. 2-3. The next seven paragraphs are taken from this article.

144

ALICE STONE BLACKWELL

applause, sat and occupied herself with her knitting.'* In 1910 when Askanaz
Melkonian announced to her that at Varag an agricultural school would be
opened in honor of Hairig and that in that connection a campaign for funds
had started among the Armenians in the United States, Miss Blackwell expressed
great joy concerning the project and promised her material share in it when the
final arrangements were made. Unfortunately the disaster of 1915-1920
wrecked every dream of the Armenians, and put an end to the project of the
agricultural school at Varag.

When in 1923-1924 Chetjian saw Miss Blackwell for the last time, she was
then living in an apartment. She had willed her home to the city of Dorchester
and had withdrawn with her secretary to the apartment." "We spoke," he says,
"about the old days. She was interested in the friends of the past. She was very
optimistic about the future of Armenia ; and suggested that Armenia never sever
her relations with Russia. 'Yes,' she said, 'democratic liberties are desirable, but
Armenians should not be hopeless. They will be realized in due time.' "

Armenians will never forget the friendship of Miss Blackwell and will al-
ways cherish her memory with a deep sense of gratitude for all that she did for
them. She was, indeed, the guardian angel of the Armenian people.^ When
tomorrow the history of the Armenian-American community is written, a special
chapter in it will be devoted to this great lady.

IV.

A Tribute

By Samuel A. Eliot^

Y^ E are gathered here, my friends, to bring our tribute of reverence and
gratitude for the life that has been so long and so valiantly lived here among
us. If indeed it were possible for each and every one of us to express in some
single sentence the feeling that bound us to the life we here commemorate, then
from our separate experiences and our different points of view and of contact
there would be added to the silent tribute of your presence the fitting words of

4Mrs. Guy Lamprey Stantial who kindly read the entire manuscript of this symposium and

made several valuable corrections and additions, commented thus at this point : "No one

here ever saw Miss Blackwell knitting. We thought she never knew how to use her hands in

that capacity. In all instances where I ever saw her applauded she always folded her hands

in her lap and sat with bowed head, modestly accepting the plaudits of the audience. Maybe

some of her friends sav/ her knitting, but*" those of her family with whom I have talked today

say they never did."

f'Mrs. Stantial's correction and comment is as follows: Miss Blackwell turned her home over

to the Morgan Memorial when she went into the Dorchester apartment but she did not deed

it to them until her money was taken from her in 1935. Then it was agreed to furnish her

with an annuity for the rest of her life in return for the use of the house. Title to the house

went to the Morgan Memorial on her death.

^So characterized by Dr. M. S. Kaprielian, according to Dikran Megunt Spear, Baikar, April

7, 1950.

ITribute at the memorial service held at the Arlington Street Church, Boston, March 18, 1950.

145

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

appreciation and affection. I'm sure that we all feel that so radiant a life
cannot be permitted to pass into the silence without loving praise, while at the
same time one who tries to express our common feeling must respect the reserves
that are the rights of a gentlewoman.

What a rich and abundant life it was! We don't have to force words or
phrases when we speak of Alice Stone Blackwell. You know the lives of many
good, kind people seem to lack emphasis. They are sort of negatively good.
They do the right things but not so much on their own initiative as because
others do them or it is the custom of their set to do them. How refreshing and
invigorating to come into contact with a distinctive personality ready to exercise
an independent judgment, able to see clearly and imagine vividly and will nobly.
Here was a positive and affirmative nature — one that said "yes" more often than
"no." She never waited for an idea or a movement to become popular. If she
believed in it she just set to work to make it popiilar — and the slowness of the
progressive reforms she advocated so perseveringly, the apathy and indifference
of people toward the causes that to her were so imperative, never seemed to fret
her, at least in public. She may have shown some natural impatience to those
nearest her and if so I'm sure that she could express her indignation in suf-
ficiently forcible and appropriate terms — but to us who were her allies and
admirers without being her intimates every defeat seemed only to stiffen her
backbone and her eagerness to get into the battle again.

Alice Blackwell came, as you know, from a sturdy, bold, exceptionally long-
lived stock. With her first breath she must have drawn in something of her
parents' devotion to the anti-slavery movement and the cause of equal rights
for women. She inherited the intellectual and moral equipment that prepared
her for the service she was to render to humanity, and she inherited too a certain
scorn of consequences when she knew she was on the right road. Like her gifted
mother — whose biography she wrote — she could speak with fine freedom, force
and fluency. She answered every summons of conscience — oh, not with the sort
of stoi6 resignation which is about all that some of us can muster — ^but with a
resolute, contagious enthusiasm. How her penetrating intelfigence went right
to the heart of any problem or emergency ! I don't think she ever knew or recog-
nized a terminum : life to her was a thoroughfare. One cause won just meant
a chance to tackle another enterprise — and at it she went without waiting to
wonder if anybody would follow her. The reward of today's success was just
the vista of tomorrow's tasks and the recompense of duty done was more duty
to do — and more joy in doing it. The good of today presaged the better of
tomorrow.

What a faculty she had of putting herself in the place of abused and op-
pressed and underprivileged people ! That took keen imagination as well as sym-
pathy and compassion. She valued men and women, did she not, not by con-
ventional standards but by their intrinsic worth. Her own candor and vigorous
common-sense scattered all the trivial artificialities of our social intercourse.

146

ALICE STONE BLACKWELL

Her talk was entertaining, instructive but not pedantic, and sometimes a bit pro-
vocative. She lived on a high plane of thought and action but did not fail to
see the humorous side of things and could sometimes laugh at herself and at,
or with, some of her strong-minded associates.

There was nothing vague or obscure in her thinking. Right was right and
wrong was wrong. She dwelt in no neutral zone and she had no use for com-
promises when moral issues were at stake. She was well assured that what is
morally wrong can never be politically right. Courage and confidence were the
good angels that dwelt with her and through her breathed a benediction on us all.
How wide and prodigal too were her sympathies. They overflowed all
boundaries. They were as broad as humanity — ^including white and black,
Greek and Armenian, bond and free. She could say with Lowell:
Wherever wrong is done,

To the humblest and the weakest 'neath the all beholding sun.
That wrong is also done to us: and they are slaves most base.
Whose love of right is for themselves and not for all their race.

I don't remember that I ever talked with her about rehgion. Somehow the
pre-eminence of the spiritual values seemed to be just taken for granted. I am
sure that for her the great commandments were not those that begin "Thou
shaft not" but those that begin "Thou shalt." For her religion was not a static
formula but a dynamic process — not renunciation but the multiplication of free-
dom and power. To accept the rich privileges of life with an alert body, an
eager mind, a lively imagination, a steadfast purpose — that was to her the
Father's business in which she had a responsible partnership.

So she lived her 92 years, vivid, resilient — in communion with all sorts and
conditions of men, in constant pursuit of the things that are just and lovely
and of good report, in the faith that this mysterious and majestic universe is
well ordered — and then, with no wasting malady or long decay, the end was
peace.

In the biography of her mother, Lucy Stone, Miss Blackwell printed some
verses which her mother had clipped from a newspaper and had beside her as
she lay quietly dying. They seem as appropriate for the daughter as for the
mother :

Up and away like the dew of the morning.
That soars from the earth to its home in the sun.
So let me steal away gently and lovingly,
Only remembered by what I have done.

Needs there the praise of the love-written record,
«. The name and the epitaph graved on the stone?

The things we have lived for, let them be our story,
We ourselves but remembered by what we have done.

Not myself, but the truth that in life I have spoken.
Not myself, but the seed that in life I have sown.
Shall pass on to ages, all about me forgotten.
Save the truth I have spoken, the things I have done.

147

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

A Sonnet

By William Lloyd Garrison, Jr.^

J^HE sweeps the wide horizon with her glass

Watching the human drama there unroll,

And, tracing the events upon her scroll,

Divines the meaning of what comes to pass.

Across the years her clear coherent speech

Has flashed like sunlight through a rifted cloud

To lend illumination when the crowd

With cruel hands the weak has sought to reach.

The Psalmists' days have passed her with a smile.

Her heresies enjoy the guise of law,

And now, with Delphic word at her command.

Beside her tripod at the cavern's maw.

With flame-tipped thoughts does she the world beguile

And, as of old, drive darkness from the land.

In Memoriam

FORTNIGHT before her death on March fifteenth, Miss Blackwell ex-
pressed two longings — characteristically not for herself but to keep the cause of
woman's freedom alive in the minds and hearts of coming generations. She
wanted the biography of Lucy Stone put into the libraries of all the women's
colleges of the nation, and she wanted the private papers of Lucy Stone and
Henry B. Blackwell put in order and indexed so that these priceless records of
the anti-slavery and woman's movements might be available for the future.

It should be a privilege for every Armenian to help make the last wishes of
Alice Stone Blackvv^ell come true.

Memorial contributions may be sent to the Alice Stone Blackwell Fund, 21
Ashmont Street, Melrose 76, Massachusetts.

^Written in 1936. Read at Miss Blackwell's Memorial Service by the minister of Arlington
Street Church, Rev. Dana McLean Greeley.

148

Armenians as I Have Known Them

By Alice Stone Blackwell^

J\ YOUNG man was afraid that his sweetheart was going to jih him. He asked
an older friend what his opinion of woman was. The older man answered, "What
do you mean by asking me my opinion of one-half the human race? There are
all kinds of women. There are some who cannot be trusted out of your sight.
There are others who can be trusted through thick and thin,"

This story was called to my remembrance when I was asked to write a short
article on "Armenians as I have Known Them." Among the Armenians, as
among all other races and nationalities, there are all kinds of people, good, bad
and indifferent. I have met Armenians of all these kinds.

Many years ago a famous writer said that one can tell with almost laughable
certainty what a man's wife is like, by finding out what is his opinion of women.
An American who knows one bad Armenian is apt to jump to the conclusion
that all other Armenians are like him. Of course this is wholly unreasonable and
unjust ; but it is well for our Armenians to remember that if one of them proves
himself untrustworthy, he not only destroys his own reputation but helps to de-
stroy the reputation of all his compatriots among thoughtless Americans; and
the world is full of thoughtless persons.

Among my Armenian friends there have been some of the noblest charac-
ters that I have known — men and women thoroughly worthy of their heroic
ancestors whose history has been an inspiration to me for more than forty
years. It is well within my power to make the comparison, for it has been my
good fortune to know many extraordinary men and women of different national-
ities. I have found these fine characters among both the Armenian-speaking
and Turkish-speaking Armenians, among both the Protestants and the Gre-
gorians.

My first Armenian friend was Ohannes Khachumian,^ a brilliant young
Russian Armenian, a theological student. Mrs. Isabelle C. Barrows, who had
met him in Europe, persuaded him to come to the United States to represent
the Armenian National Church at the World's Congress of Religions which was
held at Chicago in 1893. I met him the same year in her summer camp where
he opened to me a whole new world in Armenian history and literature.

^Letter written some years ago at the request of Arthur Derounian, copied from one of her
scrapbooks for Armenian Affairs by Mrs. Edna Lamprey Stantial. We assume, on the basis of
internal evidence, that this letter was written in 1933, on the occasion of the assassination of
Archbishop Levon Tourian. The death of Archbishop Tourian must have crushed the heart
of Miss Blackwell, for in the letter to the editor in which Mrs. Stantial refers to this article,
she adds : "Somewhere [in the scrapbooks] I saw another reference to the Armenian people,
but I cannot find it. But this was the sentence that impressed me : 'When I hear of an Armen-
ian who has done something wrong, I feel like a grandmother whose grandchild has hurt her.' "

—Ed.

2See supra pp. 139 ff for details of the life of Khachumian and his relations with Miss

Blackwell.

149

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

The first Society of Friends of Armenia was organized that summer with
Mrs. Barrows as president, and myself as secretary.

Ohannes KJiachumian studied for some time at an Episcopal theological
school in this country. He then returned to Europe and died a year or two later ;
but the influence of his short life still survives.

It is a thousand pities that so many of our young Armenians of today re-
main in ignorance of their nation's wonderful history. It is as if they were entitled
to a great treasure buried by their ancestors but never took the trouble to dig it
up. It is uplifting to know that one had ancestors whom one should always try
to live up towards, even if one can never fully live up to them.

THE LAKE OF VAN^
By Raffi (Melik Hagopian)

j^ PEAK, O lake ! why are thy waters silent
Wilt thou not lament with luckless me?
Move, ye zephyrs, move the rippling wavelets!
With this lake my tears shall mingled be.

Tell me, lake — for thou hast been a witness
Of our history from the earliest day —
Shall Armenia, that was once a garden,
Always be a thorny desert gray?

Shall our hapless fatherland forever

By a foreign master be down-trod?

Are the Armenians and their sons unworthy,

Judged before the righteous throne of God?

Is a glad day coming, when a banner
Shall on Ararat its folds expand.
And from every side Armenian pilgrims
Hasten to their beauteous fatherland?

iFrom Armenian Poems, rendered into English verse by Alice Stone Blackwell, [published by
Robert Chambers], Boston, 1917, p. 124.

150

Notes on the Evolution of Armenians

Architecture

and Its Influence Abroad

By Vahan Hagopian^

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

N the New York Public Library is a book entitled Recueil de Cent Estampes,
Representant Differeiites Nations du Levant by M. Le Hay, under the orders of
M. de Ferriol, ambassador of the King to the Sublime Porte, printed in Paris
in 1714, showing the colorful and picturesquely varied costumes worn at the
time by dignitaries, functionaries, officers, and members of trades and crafts in
Constantinople.

A full page illustration of a standing personage holding the attribute of his
craft is captioned "Un Architecte Armenien" which bears out the fact, little
known even to Armenians, that they had almost a monopoly as master builders in
the Turkish empire, the tradition of which went back to Byzantium when an
Armenian architect named Tiridates was summoned in A.D. 989 from his coun-
try to repair serious damage done to St. Sophia by an earthquake.

Armenians are seldom aware that probably the most outstanding mani-
festation of their past culture is their contribution to architecture, as has been
emphasized by leading authorities on archeology and the history of architec-
ture, among whom may be mentioned Professors Grimm, Strzygowski, Benoit and
Choisy. The architecture of Armenia, although influenced by Byzantium and
Persia, has flourished in a most original manner, with its own marked char-
acteristics, and in turn has influenced not only adjoining countries but has had
its repercussions in distant lands.

The architecture of the inhabitants, Armenians and Georgians, of the

iVahan Hagopian, Architect A. I. A., born in Cairo, was educated in the French Christian
schools there. As a result of their influence he continued with his higher education in Paris,
where he completed his professional studies with honors and attained the highest degree in
architecture awarded by the French government. From the beginning of his career he was
attracted to ecclesiastical architecture. The study of Christian dogmas and liturgies and their
continual influence on architecture fascinated him. Realizing the important role which
Armenian architecture plays in this chain of evolution, he went into its study deeply while
at the Ecole Nationale des Beaux Arts. The subject of his final thesis there was an Armenian
church and community center. Here he emphasized the philosophy of Armenian design,
although the group of buildings conformed to modern life and economy. Through the years
that followed Mr. Hagopian has continued his study and research in Armenian architecture,
although much of his ecclesiastical design work has been for other nationality groups. — Ed.

151

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

mountain lands between the Black Sea, Anatolia, Upper Mesopotamia, the
Caspian Sea and the Caucasus mountains may be studied by the remains of
religious buildings erected after their conversion to Christianity in the last
quarter of the third century by St. Gregory the Illuminator. Some ruins at
Garni, near Yerevan, are the earliest known and remind us of an important
building by King Tiridates, dating from the beginning of the fourth century.

However, from the beginning of the fifth century, the Christians of Armenia
were subject to persecutions by the Persians, which slowed up construction. From
this time dates the plan, if not the upper structures, of the Mother Church,
situated in the center of the Monastery of Echmiadzin in the Holy See of the
Armenians at Echmiadzin, which was also known as Vagharshapat.

The seventh century was a busy era in construction, especially under the
pontificate of Catholicos Komitas (after A.D. 618) and Nerses III, also called
the Builder (A.D. 640-661). The former rebuilt on the same foundations the
Cathedral of Echmiadzin and the nearby churches of Saint Hripsime (A.D.
618) and Saint Gaiane (A.D. 628-640). The most noteworthy edifice of Nerses
is the Church of St. Gregory the Illuminator, a shrine to the Armenian apostle
and also a capital document for the history of Armenian architecture. This
period was also marked by the unhappy addition of porticos to many ancient
churches. From A.D. 718 to 728 the Church of Usunlar was built, which is
undoubtedly contemporaneous to that of Tikor.

Armenian geographic position between Persia and the Greek empire made
her, until the tenth century and the protection of the Califs of Baghdad gave her
kings, a perpetual battlefield. Her development was under handicaps, and by
the time she had the quiet and security necessary to the creation of great art,
Byzantian architecture had crystallized itself. Armenia borrowed from it its
general principles. The plan of the Armenian church of the tenth century is a
variation of the Byzantine plan.

Armenia, under the dynasty of the Bagratides (A.D. 859-1080) had a
period of prosperity, particularly in the last half of the tenth century and the
beginning of the eleventh, during the reigns of King Ashod III, Sempad II, and
Gagik I, who encouraged building.

From the beginning of the tenth century dates the monastery of Akhtamar
on an island in Lake Van, with its church which is more a jewel than a building ;
the Church of Pitzounda on the Black Sea ; the Church of Mokwi and that of
the Holy Cross at Akhpat (A.D. 977-991 ) . The first half of the eleventh century
produced the Church of Koutais (A.D. 1003), ruined by the Turks in 1691;
the buildings at Ani, ruined by Arp Asian (1064); the Cathedral (1010),
Chapel of St. Gregory, Chapel of the Redemptor ( 1041 ) , Convent of Marmashen
at the north of Alexandropol (Leninakan) ; the churches of Sandjerl (1033-
1044) ; Nikortzminda under the king Bagrat of Georgia (1027-1072). The end
©f the eleventh century saw the Church of Samthavis and the Church of the
Convent of Ghelat. In the twelfth century there was a decrease in building

152

EVOLUTION OF ARMENIA'S ARCHITECTURE

activity. Nevertheless, a mausoleum was added to the Church of the Holy Cross
at Akhpat in 1183, the monastery of Kosha Vank was built near Ani, and the
Church of St. Gregory was built at Ani in 1215.

In 1222 came the MongoUan invasion, and since then the architecture of
Armenia has been on the decline. Upper Georgia, however, was less affected and
the Monastery of Safar at Akhalsykh, along with the Church of Saint Sava were
built (1306-1334).

The high mountain country, swept by rainy winds from the Black Sea, a
variable and damp climate, and an insufficient all around civilization were a
handicap to the art of construction. Yet the country offered facilities in the
procurement of wood, excellent and abundant building stone, and an intelligent
and active population which did the most with the materials at hand. As lime-
stone for m.ortar was scarce, the perfectly cut stone in buildings was laid with
neat dry joints in level courses. This practice lasted until the Middle Ages.
Alternate courses of brick and stone and brick quoins around corners as in
Koutais are the exceptions.

As a consequence of Armenia's religious dependence on Asia Minor and
northern Syria, of its being open to penetrations from Anatolia and Persia, and
of a strategic situation which made her the object of constant disputes between
the Sassanian and Byzantine empires, Armenian architecture naturally felt
the competing influences of Asia Minor, Syria and Byzantium on the one hand,
and of the Mesopotamian, Persian, and Moslem on the other hand. Up to the
tenth century the first were dominant. After this period the latter influence was
the most felt. Therefore, Armenian architecture may be classified as of the pre-
tenth and post-tenth centuries. The study of her construction and design char-
acteristics may be best done in comparison to that of Byzantium from where
most of her pre-tenth century influence is received. The factor that was com-
mon to both Syria and Armenia is that they were stone building countries and
have received influences from the same sources, which they have nevertheless
expressed in different ways.

11.

FORM

Design Expression and Plan. The Byzantines express on the exterior of
their buildings the inner divisions and organic structure frankly, while the Ar-
menians conceal them under an artificial symmetry. This concern for symmetry is
carried to the point where the dome is placed in the exact center of the overall
length of the church and the apse is concealed under the main roof. The side
apses are likewise concealed under the extension of the roof of the side aisles.
V-shaped niches between the apse and side apses are the only outward expres-
sion of their relation in plan. These V-shaped niches which are characteristic

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ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

to the style are also found on the other elevations of the church, mainly in the
buttresses terminating the dome carrying arches.

The conception of the architectural effect is an original and a happy one.
The concern about appearance is evident and this sense of the esthetic is en-
tirely different from that of the East. This architecture is also noteworthy for
its complete unconcern of material sizes. Another characteristic is the sense of
the picturesque in the taste for the monumental.

The plan of the Armenian church is generally rectangular with a nave
and a transept of equal widths but varying lengths. At the intersection of the
nave and transept is a polygonal or circular tower which lights the edifice.

The nave which is terminated on its eastern end by a semi-circular apse
where the services are held is flanked by aisles of lesser dimensions. Generally
chapels or small apses, as is customary in the oriental churches, terminate the
aisles.

In the earlier churches such as the Cathedral of Echmiadzin and the Church
of Tikor the ap>se projects beyond the rectangle of the building and its ex-
terior face is polygonal. In later churches, when the exterior of the apse be-
came flush with the rectangle of the building, as in Ani Cathedral and St.
Hripsime, its position was marked on the outside with V-shaped niches on each
of the sides and rising to the full height of the building. These niches are
sometimes repeated on the other sides of the building and express the separation
of the transept from the aisles as well as the nave from the aisles.

In the Cathedral of Echmiadzin and the Church of St. Hripsime, the
apses appear on the four sides of the edifice while in the Church of Koutais, in
addition to the other apse at the east of the nave, is one on each end of the
transept.

Sometimes, as in the churches of Tikor and Usunlar, the Syrian influence
of projections on the rear end of the church give to the plan the shape of a T
in the arms of which are exterior small apses, and as in Usunlar, an exterior
peristyle on the entrance and sides of the building.

The atrium and generally the narthex are absent.

The funeral chapels and memorial churches, such as St. Gregory the
Illuminator, near Echmiadzin, present a circular plan or a square plan with
absence of nave and transept, and where the apses project directly from the
arches which support the dome, as in St. Hripsime's Church in Echmiadzin.

The equilibrium of the construction of the Armenian churches is perfectly
maintained and expressed. The dome is almost thrustless and carried by arches
and braced by the vaults of the side apses, side aisles, and are at their critical
points buttressed by reinforced piers. The proportions of the Armenian church
are slender. In the eleventh century these were further emphasized with the
pointed arch, ribbed piers, and on the plain interior walls with decorative ar-
cades of thin engaged columns supporting raised-on-horse-shoe arches. This

154

EVOLUTION OF ARMENIA'S ARCHITECTURE

latter is an Armenian peculiarity totally alien to Byzantium and has been trans-
mitted to Russian and Balkan churches.

Along the edges of the buildings and openings as well as acting as friezes
and decorative bands are concentrated heavy bands of trimming, the weight
of which is quite in contrast with the small dimensions of the building. These
braids or ribbons often take the form of leaf ornament of a Sassanian type.

In the interiors of all these churches we see pointed barrel vaults at the
ends of which are projecting doubled arches. Where these piers fall, each is
received and carried to the floor by an individual pilaster or engaged column,
this giving the appearance of a pier with broken surfaces. This is a forerunner of
such piers in western Romanesque architecture, which it antedates.

Construction of Vaults. The Byzantines resorted to brick, which alone
could allow the spanning of voids with masonry without the help of trusses,
forms and bracing. A thin slice of masonry was built at a time and supported
by the adjacent work through the adhesion of the mortar, until the latter hard-
ened. The work was then continued until the span was covered. This method
of construction became so established that the Byzantines used it even where
building stone was abundant.

In Armenia, however, stone was the logical material to use. But, as vous-
soirs of large stone could not be held in place even temporarily through adhesion
of mortar, wooden forms for temporary support were inevitable. Therefore,
construction was designed to lessen the temporary timber work.

The Pointed Arch. The pointed arch never appears in the Byzantine
school, where necessity did not compel its use. Up to the tenth century Armenian
architecture also used the semicircular arch (Tikor, Usunlar, Koutais). About
the time of the Cathedral of Ani, the pointed arch had come into being.

The Persians had long ago found that by use of an "oval" arch for their
'great spans they could reduce the side thrust on the walls which bore the vaults
and thus economize on materials. The countries where the pointed arch de-
veloped were those primarily exposed to the influence of Persia, but where
also stone had to replace brick. To execute the Persian design in stone would
have meant excessive thrust at the upper portion of the arch and a complication
in stone cutting. In such a case the advantages of economy of materials would
have been offset by a greater difficulty in execution. If, however, the side
arches were struck with a single radius larger than one half the span from two
different centers until the arches met, the thrust of the flat portion at the apex
of the oval would be eliminated. Thus the pointed arch was created. This
maintained the advantages of the Persian design and, because the curve of the
arch is now constant, all the voussoirs could be cut on a single pattern.

The Dome. The Armenian dome presents the appearance of a hollow cone
resting on pendentifs through a cylindrical drum. The pendentifs are of the

155

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

spherical triangular or conical type. The former denote their Byzantine origin,
and the latter, their Persian influence.

The characteristic form of this dome is justified like that of the pointed arch
because of the requirements of stone construction. The spherical dome which is
easy to build in brick necessitates complicated stone cutting. Its upper portions,
being almost flat, cause an excessive thrust. The hollow conical design simpUfies
the cutting of the stone and, what is more, allows its easier setting without forms.
Provided the slope of the cone is sufficient, the friction of each on its bed is
enough to keep it in place, as a corbel, until the ring is completed. Such a
construction is hardly more difficult than that of a wall.

This ingenious profile has been used in all the domes built in Armenia from
the ninth to the twelfth centuries. From Armenia it crossed over and was
adopted by the Seljuk Turks. As one of those mistakes that often happens in
second-hand art, the Turks translated this design in brick and carried it from
Iconium to Nicea, and wherever they extended their domination.

Another form of Armenian vault is that typified by the one in the Chapel
of Akhpat, which dates from the twelfth century. Four cross arches or large
ribbings span the room, two in each direction. This leaves in the center a square
space which is Ukewise spanned to carry a "lantern" dome. The space between
the ribbings and the walls is filled with slabs on small arches. This vault ex-
presses the same conception of design as that of Mihrab of Cordova in Spain, and
its theory has a strange resemblance to that which gave Gothic construction its
fundamental character.

The Arcade and Arch. While the Byzantine arcade on columns is mostly
structural, its Armenian counterpart, which is described below, is decorative and
quite alien to it, the columns projecting only slightly from the wall instead of
standing free. It appears after the tenth century. As to the arch itself, the
Byzantine being built in brick, presented a flat section, whereas the Armenian,
being built of stone, was molded mostly in the form of parallel cylinders.

The Column and Supports for Arches. While the Byzantine architects
endeavored to conceal the springs of arches, the Armenians emphasized them.
When a pillar was to receive a series of arches or ribbings, the pillar was broken
up in appearance so that each ribbing fell on an individual column or pilaster.
These, however, were generally engaged in a group forming the prototype of the
pillars of the arches of the Gothic churches.

Used decoratively, the engaged column (part of the wall) was surmounted
by a bulbous capital which perpetuated itself in an exaggerated form in Slavonic
architecture.

Decoration. A definite distinction in decoration may be noticed between
the schools that built in brick and those that built in stone. In the former, to
which belongs the Byzantine, the decoration is purely architectural in that its
sculpture is possible out of the masonry surfaces.

156

EVOLUTION OF ARMENIA'S ARCHITECTURE

Sculpture and Ornamentation. Byzantine sculpture has never been any-
thing than a raised drawing. It has its originaHty, but it never got its inspiration
from nature. As a matter of fact, with the advent of Christianity, sculpture in
Greek art ceased to exist.

Armenian sculpture borrows all of its motifs from interlaced embroidery-
trimmings. Braids, frame panels and openings run on edges of buildings and
cornices as bands.

This decoration is always out of scale as contrasted with the surfaces on
which it is carved, and is concentrated. Its contrast with plain surfaces gives
it its pecuhar character and vigorous effect. The influence of this style of
ornamentation is found in all of Russia, particularly in southern Russian archi-
tecture, as well as in the lower Danubian countries, especially in Serbia. It has
also had its influence in Scandinavia, England, Ireland, and Normandy.

Color. While the brick surfaces of Byzantine construction lend themselves
admirably to marble veneers, inlays, glass, mosaics and fresco paintings, the
schools that build in stone have their own mode of decoration. With them
sculpture takes its importance and steps to the foreground, while color becomes
unnecessary. If painting, mosaics, and marble inlays are not eliminated, they
play a secondary part in Armenian architecture. In the Ani Cathedral, color is
reduced to a play of tones arrived at by the alternating of the white and grey
courses of stonework.

III.

RADIATION

The various component elements of Armenian architecture have been so
thoroughly assimilated and developed by the ingenuity of Armenian craftsmen
that the resultant is a distinct art with its own strong characteristics. Through
these characteristics we may follow the influence of Armenian architecture,
which radiated in several directions and influenced far distant countries.
Armenian architecture was favored by the prestige of its monasteries and by the
migration of a part of the population of Ani, after its fall to the Seljuks (A.D.
1066), to the north of the Caspian Sea, the Crimea, Galicia, Moldavia, Serbia
and Poland where Armenian settlements have perpetuated themselves to the
present day.

Armenian architecture has undoubtedly furnished Seljuk Anatolia with
building formulae ; Russia, with programs and masters ; Serbia and Moldavia-
Walachia, with models of decoration. There is a marked resemblance between
the plan of Saint Sophia at Kiev with the Georgian church of Molui ; the
structure of some of the cupolas and especially the inspiration of the ornamen-
tation of many an ancient Russian church shows that Armenian influence was

157

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

strongly competing with that of Byzantium. This may be explained by the Trans-
caucasian influence, by the relation of Russian princes with Armenia and
Georgia, and by the settlement on the Russian border of refugees from the
city of Ani.

Armenian influence in the Danubian countries was due in the first place
to monastic relations between both countries. Saint Sava (A.D. 1169-1236),
archbishop primate of Serbia, great artisan of the civilization of his country
and of its ecclesiastic organization visited the Armenian monasteries. Secondly,
the Armenian settlements in southern Russia, Poland, and Moldavia had also
their influence.

The general conception of the Russian churches of Pokrov, Kiev, Vladimir,
and more particularly of the Roumanian churches and those of Serbia is Ar-
menian more than Byzantine. If in these churches the Armenian pointed arch
was not adopted, as we see especially in Serbia, Roumania and Moldavia, the
Armenian character of decoration is all the more marked, such as in the churches
of Ravinica, Krusevac, Studenitza where Armenian ornament is applied on a
Byzantine bulk. The churches of Kuritsa, Argich, Tergovitch, Dragomima
have no ornament that is not definitely Armenian. From the point of view of
decorative architecture, the Danubian valley seems to be an Armenian colony.
The only element omitted seems to be the pointed arch.

Armenian architecture has also had its influence on the evolution of the
Byzantine school, as a consequence of Armenia's supplying Byzantium with
administrators, generals, emperors, and also architects.

Thus, the coast of the Black Sea from Armenia to Constantinople is related
to Armenian art. From Byzantium Armenian influence followed the course of
commerce over the great rivers, the Danube, the Don, the Dniester and the
Volga to Novgorod, the Vistula, and the borders of Scandinavia. The presence
of Armenian art is felt as far as Norway and Sweden. This influence does not
stop in Scandinavia, but is carried by the Norsemen. It follows their wake and
manifests itself in the romanesque ornamentation of Normandy, England and
Ireland. In Ireland, the details of usual decoration present such resemblance
with Armenian decoration that they have long been noticed and seem to con-
firm this distant radiation from Asia.

Without being absolutely able to prove it, we may, with considerable jus-
tification assume on the basis of a comparison of the general trend and the
different peculiarities of Armenian churches and the more recent Carohngian
Romanesque churches of northwestern Europe, that the former must have had
its influence on the latter. We may also see in the plan of Ani Cathedral the
piers of many assembled columns and the pointed arch in section which begins to
occur in Europe a century later.

158

Literary Pilgrimages to Armenia

Editorial Note

The two articles below, though written independently, without consultation
on the part of the authors, are presented here together under a single heading as
they deal with the same subject. Each writer in his own characteristic way bears
witness to the fact that for the past thirty years Soviet Armenian writers have been
creating a new literature, very much Armenian in spirit and form, using the rich
folklore and treasury of art of their country as its foundation. A third article, by
A. Adamian and V. I5eznuni, in the "Books and Reviews" section of the next issue of
Armenian Affairs, will bring the subject up to date, particularly from the standpoint
of the number and variety of books pubHished in the Armenian Soviet Republic
since 1946.

From America to Armenia

By K. SiTAL
CONVENTION OF SOVIET ARMENIAN WRITERS

RMENIA is the proud possessor of a very old and glorious culture. This cul-
ture is second to none both in its achievements and in the great influence it has
exerted upon the civilization and progress of mankind.

This fact has been recognized by many outstanding European scholars and
intellectuals. Now this great cultural inheritance of Armenia has become the
pride and the priceless treasure of all the peoples of the Soviet Union.

After long centuries of untold suffering and of heroic struggle, once more,
the Armenian people became the proud masters of their own destiny. This was
thirty odd years ago.

A new era of creative achievements had dawned upon the worthy people
of Armenia.

Since then, in an atmosphere of reconstruction and enthusiasm, the for-
tunate writers of free Armenia have been creating a wholesome and new litera-
ture — very much Armenian in style and spirit and yet universal in content and
appeal. The unique treasury of the national art and culture and the rich and
colorful folklore were widely utilized in the making of this new and vigorous
literature.

It was a convention of these Armenian wTiters that I had the rare fortune
of attending in Yerevan, Soviet Armenia. It started on September 25 and ended
on October 1, 1946.

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ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

The purpose was to evaluate the new hterature, to discover its shortcom-
ings and the ways and means of making it effective as an instrument of service
to the people. There were present two hundred forty members of Soviet Ar-
menia's Writers' Union. A number of non-members were also present. Ten
had come as guests from abroad. There were also Armenian representatives from
republics of Azerbaijan and Georgia. A notable group had come from Russia
and Estonia. Two leading Georgian writers were also present.

Armenian literature, both old and new, can be better appreciated with
reference to the geography and history of the land which gave it birth ; and the
new may not be understood without reference to the old. Any description of the
Convention and discussion of the problems raised there may become more mean-
ingful to the reader if the relation of the old to the new and the relation of both
to the geography and history of the land are indicated.

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE

The physical environment of a country, its climate and geographical
characteristics leave their impression upon the culture and art of the people. This
is especially true of Armenia, with its lofty mountains and fertile valleys ; its sap-
phire-blue lakes and swift foaming rivers ; its long, severe winters, slowly unfolding
springs, hot dry summers in the valleys and plains, and the cool, flower-bedecked
fields in the mountains, and its brief, mellow, but fruitful autumns. Armenia
is also a land of flowers and birds: with its more than two thousand distinct
varieties of flowers, and its great number and variety of birds, it is no wonder
that legend places the old Garden of Eden in Armenia,

This rugged and beautiful setting has left its deep, everlasting impression
upon every phase of Armenian art and literature, as upon the other aspects of
the life of the people.

Many peoples have mingled their blood with that of this ancient people.
Eleven hundred years before our era we find Armenia a well-civilized country
with a flourishing culture and a vast system of irrigation.

Its geographical position has made the Armenian plateau both a source
of misfortune to its people and a bridge over which the cultural heritage of the
East and West have trafficked back and forth — an endless battleground and the
crossroads of many civilizations. Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians,
Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongols, Seljuks and Ottoman Turks have over-
run it and drenched the soil with blood. And yet, despite the repeated visitation
of death and the destruction of the great works of art — valuable books and
manuscripts, beautiful shrines and magnificent edifices — the creative genius of the
Armenian p-eople has continued to reassert itself each time in the field of art,
architecture, literature, music and the handicrafts.

Long before the Christian era the Armenians recognized the value of Hel-
lenism and became its protagonists in the Near East.

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

Armenia was also the first nation to adopt Christianity — at least ten years
before Constantine gave it official recognition. This was followed by the Golden
Age of Armenian Hterature.

There are quite a number of Armenian translations of the Greek masters,
the originab of which have been lost. It is through these translations that the
cultural world today is in possession of some of these works.

The Armenian renascence started about the middle of the tenth century
by the great poet and mystic Gregory of Narek. It extended to the realm of
architecture, painting and literature.

LAND OF POETRY AND SONG

In the field of lyric poetry, which had such an abundant harvest among
the Armenians, two great bards stand out — Kouchak in the sixteenth century and
Sayat-Nova in the eighteenth century. Anatole France and Valery Brusov have
claimed Kouchak to be the greatest poet in the expression of the simple and burn-
ing emotion of love. Sayat-Nova was the court poet and singer of Tamara, the
glamorous queen of Georgia. He wrote and sang in three languages with equal
ease — Armenian, Georgian, and Azerbaijan. He is highly appreciated by all
three peoples and his fame is widespread throughout the Soviet Union, his poetry
having been translated into nearly every language of the constituent republics
of the Union.

The last great pre-Soviet Armenian writers were Shirvanzade and Tuman-
ian. Both of them saw the liberation of their land, the fulfillment of the dream
of their people. They died contentedly, loved and honored by all — ^the people of
their land and of the other republics of the Soviet Union, to whom their works
have been made accessible. To the same generation of great writers belongs
Avetik Isahakian, the poet-laureate of Armenia, greatly admired in all parts of
the Soviet Union, whom Alexander Blok in 1916 characterized as "a first
class poet," adding that perhaps there was "no other inspired and original poet
like him in all Europe."

The folklore of the Armenian people is rich, beautiful, diversified and revo-
lutionary. The national epic of Armenia, Daredevils of, Sassoun or David of
Sassoun, was unknown outside of Armenia until very recently. In 1939 the
many of its variants which had been passed on from generation to generation
for scores of centuries^ were collected, compiled and published in two great

IThe one thousandth anniversary of the epic of David of Sassoun was celebrated in Armenia
in 1939. A considerable part of this great and old epic goes back to the days when the
Armenians were pagans. That is the part of "Sanasar" and "Baghdasar." The present inter-
pretation is that this great epic has been started in the far antiquity and gradually has grown
to its present form. As there is a section which goes way back to our pagan period there is
also a section of epic that belongs to this time, which is very recent, when the craftsmen
became an important section of our people. Little Meher is a creation of this group and he
represents the aspirations of a people who have passed through every stage of social orders
up to the present one.

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ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

volumes. Special committees were formed in various parts of the Soviet Union
for the purpose of having it translated into the many languages of the peoples of
the constituent republics. It was received with great enthusiasm everywhere, its
heroes inspiring courage and hope during the critical days of the second World
War.

David of Sassoun is an original folk-creation, devoid of hatred, permeated
with the spirit of freedom and brotherhood. The story has no end — it is projected
into a happy and bright future of humanity. According to it, its last hero, Little
Meher, is still alive. With his fiery horse and sword of lightning he is waiting for
action on the day when the oppressed peoples will rise and destroy the unhappy
old world of suffering and sorrow and establish in its place a new order of life,
when grains of wheat will be as large as walnuts, barley will grow the size of
berries, and com will be of gold.

Kashti Kadcher (The Braves of Kasht) is another great epic which bubbles
with refreshing humor, bravery and tenderness. It is a tale of partisan warfare
of the freedom loving Armenians and their neighbors, the Kurds, led by the
invincible warriors of Kasht, who rise against the hordes of Tamur Khan.
Tamur Khan fails to conquer these people. He is out-maneuvered and out-
generalled by them. His armies are crushed and he is captured and put to
death. The survivors of Tamur's once great army were advised to return to their
homeland and live their own lives there. In this epic Tamur Khan is not a
real, historic person but a symbol of tyranny.

Nearly all Armenian folk stories end with hope for a better world. One of
the most charming of these stories is that of Hazaran Bulbiil (The Immortal
Nightingale). The hero of the tale is the youngest of the three sons of a poor
gardener who after untold sufferings and incredible exploits succeeds in securing
this magic bird. Under its enchanting strains the garden blooms and spreads
down into the valleys and all over the countryside. Under its magic strains the
old become young, strong, wise, noble and immortal, and happiness becomes
their perennial, all-embracing lot.

These epics and folk stories present a symbolic picture of Armenia, past
and present.

THE DAWN OF A NEW DAT

Since 1920 Armenia has been experiencing a new renascence. With the
peace and security which has come with the establishment of Soviet order a new
day has dawned in this land of suffering and death, with unparalleled oppor-
tunities to its people to shape their life and destiny in accordance with their
traditions and desires.

Armenia enjoys today a cultural growth unique in its long and glorious
history. A major credit for this goes to the nationalities policy of Joseph
Stalin, and his personal interest and intimate knowledge of Armenian culture.

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

Some time prior to the second World War a delegation of intellectuals from
Armenia who were \'isiting the great leader were astounded by his thorough knowl-
edge of Armenian culture. Upon learning from the head of the group that the
scientific textbooks of the University of Armenia were not in the Armenian
language, because of certain technical difficulties, he called attention to the wealth
and adaptability of their language and suggested that a serious attempt be
made to correct this flaw in the scientific education of Armenian youth. As a
result all textbooks used in Armenia, including those in the field of science, are
in the Armenian language.

Illiteracy has been wiped out in Armenia, and a network of public schools,
theaters, opera houses, libraries, museums and institutions of higher learning
cover the land. The enormous manuscript wealth of Armenia is housed in the
Matenadaran, the national library of manuscripts in Yerevan which, with its more
than fifteen thousand manuscripts and two hundred thousand other papers and
documents, is the largest of its kind in the entire Soviet Union. Ten times as many
have been destroyed by the invading hordes, have been carried away, and during
the first World War have fallen into the destructive hands of the Turks. At
present a five story building is under construction to house its ever increasing
manuscript and rare book collection.

Not only is the rich heritage of Armenia now being preserved through
literary collections, research and special studies, but much has been added to it
through the creative effort of the new generation of poets, novelists and dram-
atists. The new art overflows with confidence, the spirit of brotherhood and a
sense of destiny.

The one-tenth of Armenia liberated and now a constituent republic of the
Soviet Union is a place of pilgrimage for Soviet scholars and intellectuals, who
consider its priceless ancient heritage an integral part of the culture of the entire
Soviet Union. Many of these intellectuals make annual visits to Armenia and
spend considerable time studying its history, archeology, art and other cultural
resources. They were represented at the second convention of Soviet Armenian
writers.

THE CONVENTION IN THE NEW OPERA HOUSE

The impressive opening of the Convention took place at the State Opera
House ; Avetik Isahakian, the patriarch of Armenian poetry, presiding.

The Secretary of the Writers' Union, Gregorian, gave an interesting report
of Soviet Armenian literature to date. He outlined the astonishing economic and
industrial progress in Soviet Armenia, and indicated how this had been reflected
in the new art and literature, characterized as these are by a healthy social
realism. Gregorian illustrated his theme by showing how the early revolutionary
temper of the masses had found expression in the fiery poems of the great poet

163

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Charentz and many other writers. He enumerated some of the leading works
given to themes of the reconstruction and the social and industrial progress under
the new order — among them Zarian's Rushani Karap (The Dyke of Rushan),
Zorian's Espitak Kaghak (The White City), Demirjian's Fosjorayeen Tsolker
(Phosphorous Rays), and the works of Abov, Sarian, Sarmen, Tarontzy, Shiraz,
and Borian. He pointed out that during the recent great war both the old and
the new generations of Armenian writers had done much through prose and
poetry on patriotic themes to inspire the people to victory. Outstanding among
the historical novels of this period are the Vardanantz of Demirjian and Pap
Tagavor (King Pap) of Zorian.

Gregorian also discussed the shortcomings of some writers, criticizing such
unhealthy manifestations in their works as defeatism, pessimism and unsocial
ideas, and their inability to understand the new Soviet generation of men and
women. He urged Armenian writers to utilize the great cultural heritage of their
people and to create new themes and new heroes out of the events and experi-
ences of the war. They should, he added, be able also to sing of the exploits of
the heroes of labor on the production front, the work of reconstruction of the
present day, and the great destiny of the fatherland.

The writers attending the Convention were then treated with a most im-
pressive recital of music, song and dance. A vioHn orchestra of some fifty-five
children, of eight and nine years of age, from a music school, created a sensation
with their playing.

In my youth I had seen this section of Armenia. It was a backward, miser-
ably, neglected province of Tsarist Russia. I could not help but marvel, there-
fore, at the miracle that had taken place within the short period of twenty-five
years. The once poverty-stricken, starving people of Armenia had generated
a new world for themselves. They had obliterated the nightmare of the past
forever and were looking forward to a glorious future with unbounded courage
and assurance.

This portion of Armenia was no longer a backward, rural area, but a
highly industrialized modem country. In place of the miserable, malaria-in-
fested, muddy old Yerevan, a magnificent metropolis with a population of three
hundred and twenty-five thousand had risen. Wide, tree-laned boulevards,
beautiful parks, graceful and imposing public buildings, and attractive new
apartment houses were characteristic features of the new capital. This magic
transformation was evident everywhere in this once poor, tortured and backward
land of Ararat. The recital itself was being given in the new opera house, a jewel
of Armenian architecture, which could be the pride of any great city of our day.

Many of the younger writers had grown up within the present period of
struggle, creation and construction, within the new economy and culture which
has undergirt with security and opportunity their homeland, and their own
lives and careers.

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

THE CONVENTION AT THE PHILHARMONIC HALL

The Convention continued for five days in the beautiful and spacious Phil-
harmonic Hall. All seats were filled at all sessions ; and admission was by ticket !
No doubt many times the number of those attending would have been present
if the space had permitted.

The ministers of the government, the members of the Armenian Academy,
leading artists, educators, and students followed the addresses and reports with
keen interest. Papers were presented by leading writers about the new prose,
drama and poetry; about the press; about the problems of the Armenian lan-
guage; and about Armenian literature abroad.

Writers criticized by the Secretary and by other speakers were given ample
time to present their points of view. Some of them answered back with a bar-
rage of counter-criticism against those who criticized them. Here was an amazing
spectacle of freedom of expression, and open criticism even by lesser writers of
the literary works of the distinguished masters. It was a most moving experience
to witness famous writers rise and with humility and courage indulge in a bout
of self-criticism, with the audience disagreeing with a burst of applause in
appreciation of their work and service.

The convention as a whole was a picture of intellectual honesty, character
and strength, magnanimity, self-confidence, and harmony of purpose.

The Russian and Georgian delegations seemed to be well acquainted with
various phases of Armenian literature, the work of individual writers, and the
problems confronting them.

Nikolai Tikhonov, the famous warrior-poet and defender of Leningrad,
in a moving address paid high tribute to Armenian Hterature which, he said,
"possessed a poetry of the highest order and an equally famous prose, a literature
permeated with the spirit of patriotism and the impulse of public service. That
much was made very clear when the Armenian people fought for their inde-
pendence. It is as clear today." Tikhonov then reminded the convention that
during the war one-third of all Armenian writers were at the front, many of
whom laid down their lives so that others could live in peace and freedom. Now,
he continued, writers were on a new front where every good book was a battle
won, where each victory meant greater prosperity and happiness for the people.

The year before, the Armenian government had decided to repatriate the
Armenians abroad, those victims of the First World War who had been driven
from their homes by the Turkish massacres and depredations. There have been
over one million of those unfortunates in the countries of the Near East, the
Balkans, France, and elsewhere. There was an important colony of Armenian
immigrants in the interior of Iran, who had been taken there in 1605 by Shah
Abbas I. At the time of the convention over sixty thousand repatriates had

165

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

arrived and were being established in new homes and jobs. This was the occasion
of greajt enthusiasm and rejoicing.

The physical reunion of the Armenian nation was being forged, and it was
considered imperative that there should also be a union on the cultural front.
The convention dwelt on this subject a great deal.

Throughout the conference prevailed a deep sense of the responsibility and
the necessity of relating literature to the current needs and future goals of the
social order and the nation. It ended on a note of the importance of social
realism in literature in general, and the necessity of creating new types of peace-
time heroes who would embody in particular the aims and ideas of the new
society.

From Moscow to Yerevan

By Professor A. Arsharuni

IJrGENT business had kept me in Moscow, and I keenly regretted that I left
the capital too late to attend the Second Congress of Soviet Armenian writers.

When I arrived at the airdrome in the morning to board a plane for
Yerevan I was told that the timetable had been changed for the winter. This
meant that our plane would not arrive in Yerevan on the same day but on the
morrow.

It was almost midday when we left Rostov-on-Don where we had spent the
night. The Rostov winds and later a thick fog had delayed us. But as soon
as we found ourselves over the Black Sea coast the warm southern sun, clear
sky and sparkling expanse of sea made us forget the cold and fog which we had
left behind in the north.

At five o'clock, local time, we landed at the airdrome of Georgia's capital,
Tbilisi. Here every house, every tree was familiar. In the days of the heroic
defense of the Caucasus we had landed at this airdrome more than once and
then boarded a plane for Moscow. Then everything was grim — the men in
uniform, the general situation, even nature itself. Now, the very sunshine seemed
different, and so did the spirits of the people.

From this point our plane took off for its last lap on its flight to Yerevan.
It is only an hour's flight, but I shall never forget that hour in the air, over

166

LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

Soviet Armenia. I have travelled by air frequently under extremely difficult
conditions, often have I had moments of joy and delight, but the thrills of that
hour were something I had never experienced before.

The golden autumn lay over the land and harvesting was in progress in the
fields. The sun was sinking between the hills, lengthening and deepening their
shadows. Momentarily the earth and the hiUs changed in color, taking on new
and radiant shades. Below us lay Lori, the birth-place of Tumanian. There
were the Alaverdi Copper Works spread out beneath us. We knew our geography
without the aid of maps, and could pick out the different objects at the sight
of small and insignificant signs. Each one of us, glued to his window, gazed
hungrily at the inimitable panorama of Armenia. Slowly, very slowly, the
pictures passed out of sight to be replaced by others. Suddenly, almost simul-
taneously, all the passengers uttered the one word sacred to all Armenians —
"Ararat."

That majestic, time-honored mountain of our homeland — the literary
genius is not yet bom who may do justice to it in that sunset hour. In love with
it ever since my childhood I have read everything written about it, from the
ancient historians down to the young writers of our day. I hope I may be for-
given when I say that Mount Ararat still awaits its Petrarch. Wrapped in a
silvery cloak, the lower edges of which were turning into gold, the eternal snow
sparkling with a thousand lights, Ararat appeared like a magic lantern beckon-
ing all to come nearer.

On the right we could distinglish the outlines of the rock of Alagoz,^ whose
enchanting lines make it difficult to decide whether it was the poet or the
mountain which immortalized the other. One thing is indisputably clear:
Isahakian instilled a tender, lyrical love of Alagoz in our generation, not the
heroic Ararat lauded by Raphael Patkanian, or the Ararat of Raffi or even
Alishan, but the lyrical Alagoz of Isahakian.

On the left Lake Sevan lay hidden among the hills, peacefully wrapped in
the rays of the setting sun.

There is no doubt that Ararat was beautiful centuries ago. Our ancestors
were aware of the loveliness of Lake Sevan and the tender glory of Alagoz. And
Zangezur, the historical Siunik of which we gained a bird's-eye-view, was duly
lauded by our historians. But there was something new in our situation. Having
learned to fly, we were now able to take in the whole of Armenia at one glance.
Although in itself this was remarkable, the heart of this question lay in some-
thing else. Every object that we saw, every name that came to our minds as the
plane winged its way to Yerevan carried with it more than an historical or
geographical connotation ; it stood for our struggle and progress.

lA volcanic mountain in Soviet Armenia, also known as Mt. Aragadz, 13,435 ft. high ; not to
be confused with Mt. Ararat, the higher of whose two peaks is 16,696 ft. high, about 22 miles
beyond Yerevan, within the political bounds of modern Turkey. — Ed.

167

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Lake Sevan to the left sheltered by the great range of hills, for example,
did not only mean poetry and lyricism but the radical reconstruction of the
national economy. Seven powerful hydro-electric stations would be erected, to
work by the cheap water-power supplied by Lake Sevan. The Giumush hydro-
electric station would be put into operation in the course of the five-year plan.
The waters of Sevan would provide the cheapest electric energy to Armenia's
industry and agriculture, and would also serve for irrigation purposes. That all
this would come to pass was evinced by the fact that the Armenian people were
hard at work, developing and transforming the national economy in accordance
with the new five-year plan.

Through the settling dusk we could see the lights of Zangezur. It was, not
then yet known as an industrial center but was soon to become famous far
beyond the bounds of the Soviet Union. Work was already progressing here on
the construction of a molybdenum-copper trust,^ which was to be one of the
largest construction projects of the five-year plan. In mineral supplies and
prospects for future development, the Kadjeran works were to take a leading
place among the industrial enterprises of its type in the world.

From the air we could see the construction sites which would be completed
within the next few years.

And now beneath us lay Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, wrapped in the
settling twilight, with the sun lost behind the hills. Soon we were down and in
the bus, on our way to the warm and quiet city at eventide.

YEREVAN BY NIGHT

When we arrived in Lenin Square in the center of the city, I learned that
only three of the passengers were residents of Yerevan. The three of us, two
men and one woman, resolved to go to a hotel. The woman was Lithuanian
by nationality, born in Sukhumi, and now worked in Moscow as a synthetic
rubber expert and was coming to Yerevan to help the local synthetic rubber
plant solve a number of production problems. The man was an old friend, a
lawyer by profession, brother of the prominent Armenian public figure and
writer, Alexander Miasnikian-Martuni. The Intourist Hotel was nearby and
our luggage was taken there.

We walked down Abovian Boulevard, the street chosen by the youth for
promenading, as is done in most southern towns. Abovian is really a beautiful
thoroughfare, beginning with the fine buildings of the University, the Public
Library, the Matenadaran and other research institutes, and further down the
bright lights of picture theaters, the House of Musical Comedy, the Philharmonic,
concert and lecture halls, and athletic and sports establishments.

2In Armenian this word, spelled trest, does not suggest what it does in the United States,
namely, a private monopoly, but merely the combination of several enterprises which are
related in production, or the exploitation of raw materials. — Ed.

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

The working day was over and merry groups were gathering in front of
the cinemas, theaters and concert halls.

In Yerevan there are altogether seven theaters for adults and young people.
They present plays in the Armenian, Russian and Azerbaijan languages. Seven
professional theaters working in three languages ! That is an achievement for a
country the size of our repubhc ; but already the need was felt for more theaters
and the construction of new, modern and comfortable premises for the existing
ones. This was already accompHshed in the case of the Spendiarov Opera
House.

Yerevan at night is a city of light. It is thoroughly electrified. It was to be
even more so by the end of the five-year plan in 1950, when the whole series of
power stations on the Sevan cascade would be in operation.

Further down Abovian Boulevard we came to the monumental Government
Palace, the last work of architect Academician Tamanian. In front of this
beautiful edifice spreads a square, flanked by monuments to Lenin and Shahum-
ian,^ where the air is filled with the scent of flowers and the soft murmur of
fountains and youthful laughter.

If you want to see Ararat by moonlight you must turn to the left from the
Shahumian monument to Mikoyan Prospect or walk up Stalin Prospect, and the
silvery hood of the mountain will loom in sight. In Yerevan itself the moonlight
is drowned by the bright electric lights.

In the square, loud-speakers were broadcasting a concert, followed by the
news. We stood and waited to hear the Kremlin clock strike midnight, thrilled
that at that hour the entire country listened to the chimes from Moscow. Quietly,
without much speaking, we continued our walk in the midnight hours through
the streets of Yerevan.

Each one of us had been here during the war : and although this was already
the second post-war year, we were eager for first impressions of the city in
peacetime.

SStepan Shahumian, the famous Armenian "professional" revolutionary leader, friend
of Lenin and Stalin, was born on October 1 (13), 1878 in Tiflis. After graduating from the
"realschule" of Tiflis in 1898 he went to Riga for his higher education, where he enrolled in
the department of chemistry of the politechnic institute. In 1900 he entered the ranks of the
revolutionary movement, for which reason he was expelled from the institute, March 1, 1902.
Later the same year he was accepted in the faculty of philosophy of the University of Berlin.

In 1903 Shahumian met Lenin in Switzerland, and soon after rose to a position of leader-
ship in the Russian revolutionary movement. Back in Tiflis in 1905 and elsewhere later he
worked with Stalin and others on many projects, translating, writing, editing papers, organiz-
ing, working with labor unions. He was imprisoned and exiled several times. In 1917 and 1918,
having returned from his last exile, he became very active in the revolutionary movement in
the Transcaucasus, which ended when he and twenty- five other commissars were killed (Sep-
tember 20, 1918) at Krasnovodsk, on the Caspian Sea, by the British and other counter-
revolutionary forces in that area.

In 1906 Shahumian published as a separate volume his The National Question and Social
Democracy, which previously had appeared in the newspaper Kaidz- Several of his collected
works have appeared since his death. The latest work in Armenian is St. Shahumian, Enteer
Terker, 1902-1918 (Stepan Shahumian, Selected Works, 1902-1918), Yerevan, Hai-pet-hrat,
1948, 72 Ip. A more complete collected work has been in preparation for some time.— ^rf.

169

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

We were struck by the affability, the cordiality of the people of Yerevan.
Any question directed at any stranger on the street would bring readily an
accurate, polite, warm reply. Sometimes almost sharp tones of conversation
would lead one to think that the Yerevanites were abrupt and aggressive; but
intimate knowledge of them would soon correct the impression. Their speech
is full of endearing terms. "Enker-Dchan" (dear [soul] friend) is heard at every
turn of the conversation : and it is not uttered lightly, but with the warmest
sincerity.

On our way back to the hotel we passed by the statue of the great Armenian
writer, Khachatur Abovian, who died a little over a hundred years ago. He
lives in the hearts of Soviet Armenians. The sculptor depicted him in a thought-
ful mood, in a slightly stooping pose. Life had been harsh to him and there was
much to ponder over. And now the musing spectator would want to say to him :
"It is time to straighten your back, to raise your head ! Look around and see your
youthful, energetic successors, who are fulfilling your dreams and realizing
your unfinished work."

When we arrived at the hotel it was still thronged with people, in spite of
the late hour. Tomorrow would be a busy day filled with new and interesting
meetings.

AT THE WRITERS' UNION

The Congress of Soviet Armenian writers had closed before we arrived at
Yerevan. A number of the delegates, chiefly those from the constituent repub-
lics, had left the city. Guests from abroad were also preparing to leave.

It was an October morning. I stepped out of the hotel into a sun-flooded
street, and made my way to the Writers' Club. There, in one of the spacious
rooms on the second floor, I was soon lost in conversation with a group of
Armenian writers, many of whom were old friends. Some of them I had not
seen or heard of since the beginning of the war ; others I had not seen only since
the end of the war ; and still others I had met comparatively recently in Moscow.
The only one missing was Avetik Isahakian who was detained at home by illness.
I met him later.

Derenik Demirjian had somewhat aged physically, but his creative genius
burned as brightly as ever. People's Artist Vagarsh Vagarshian told us of the
witty dialogue in one of Demirjian's unfinished plays. Soon the two parts of
his historical novel, Vardanank, appeared in a single volume. They were com-
pleted during the war. Demirjian had worked on it for thirty years, starting on it
in the days when he wrote his play, Vasak.

The editor of the book told us that Demirjian had made a number of im-
portant corrections, not in the plot, but in the style of the first part.

Movses Arazi, the prose writer, had hardly changed. Recently, he had
published a volume of selected short stories. Towards the end of our conver-

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

sation he called me to one side and asked : "I was told by the playwright Saga-
telian that when he was in your home he had read a letter from Gorky in which
the great Russian writer praised one of my short stories."

I confirmed that this was so. In a letter dated 1928 and addressed to the
editorial offices of Soviet Land Gorky had praised one of Arazi's stories in a few,
fervent words. Gorky had read the story in a Russian translation. The letter
was in my file, and I promised Arazi to send a photostat copy of it to the Museum
of Literature.

It was pleasant to meet Sergei Payazat, talented writer and playwright,
with whom my friendship started ten years ago. During the war I was in-
formed that he had died at the front. A year ago, however, I was overjoyed
to learn that Payazat was alive. I saw him now with my own eyes.

A spirit of outright frankness had prevailed at the proceedings of the Con-
gress in evaluating the achievements of the past, appraising the current trends,
and forecasting the path which lay ahead. The delegates were in a hopeful, joy-
ous, enthusiastic mood, each eager to make his distinctive contribution to the
creation of the new literature.

Christofer Tapaltsian, a talented novelist and master of style, had begun
a lengthy novel about the Armenian intelligentsia before the war, which was
ready for the printer when the war broke out. On his return from the Caucasus
at the end of the war Tapaltsian revised his manuscript. Since then he has
published the first comprehensive work on that subject in the Armenian language.

Bagrat Staffi, writer in prose, was publishing a lengthy novel on the life of
Stepan Shahumian, on which he had been working for many years. I had the
good fortune to read it in manuscript form. Until then he had been known for
his sketches and short stories.

Three of our talented young poets, Hovhannes Shiraz, Ashot Grashi, and
Georg Emin each had published a volume of poems. Although their work
may be variously appraised, they have this one indisputable thing in common :
they all started their literary careers ten years ago, developed and matured to-
gether, and now hold an honorable place in Armenian literature. Their books
are eagerly sought by the public.

Mekrtich Koriun, the indefatigable writer for children, whose unbounded
energy and persistence is the wonder of the Armenian literary world, had pub-
lished a volume of fables and fairy-tales, a little book of plays for children, and
was then working on a story about the famous Kamo.

In the Writers' Club I was also introduced to the representatives of Ar-
menians from abroad who had attended the Congress. . Their recent books, pub-
lished abroad, were on display with the rest of the literature of Armenian writers
made available at the Congress. As a further evidence of the interchange of
ideas, friendly contacts, and strengthening and deepening of intellectual ties,
I saw how these delegates, on leaving Armenia to return to their respective

171

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

countries, loaded themselves with books written by their compatriots in Armenia.
I myself, who routinely receive all the latest books published in the Armenian
language, was to carry back with me to Moscow a heavy precious load of the
works of my Armenian friends.

It is not possible within the brief compass of this article to relate my im-
pressions and many contacts. This much, however, must be stressed, that Ar-
menian writers, after their full participation in the bloodiest war in history, had
gained a deeper insight into life than ever, and were writing with enthusiasm,
fully aware of the importance of their role in the work of reconstruction which
lay ahead. Many of those I met on that day in the Writers' Club had fought
in the ranks of the Soviet Army — Siras, Kochar, Borian, Tapaltsian, Payazat.
Those writers who had remained in the rear had helped the front with their
work. Now, in the post-war period they were all working together to heal the
wounds and develop further the young, but strong republic.

CONCERNING THE ARMENIAN THEATER

One rainy evening a group of us attended a special convention on the history
of the Armenian theater at the Institute of the History of Literature. As a sec-
tion of the Armenian Academy of Sciences, the Institute had drawn up a plan to
publish the history of the Armenian theater. For a period of two years theater
experts had been at work on this project. They were to make a preliminary
report on their work at this convention. The convention which lasted for two
days heard many other papers and reports.

That same year plans were being made to celebrate the two thousandth
anniversary of the Armenian theater. What interested me most, however, was
the modem Armenian theater.

Yerevan at that time had seven theaters — the Sundukian Dramatic Theater,
the Spendiarov Opera House, the Russian Theater named after Stanislavsky,
the Azerbaijan Theater named after Djafar Djabarly, the House of Musical
Comedy, the Youth Theater and the Puppet Theater.

Twenty-six years prior to that date there was not a single permanent pro-
fessional theater in Yerevan. Indeed, throughout the whole of the Tsarist period
there were perhaps only two or three professional Armenian theater troupes. In
1946, however, there were thirty theaters as well as a theatrical institute with
four faculties, a theatrical museum, a theatrical society and a theatrical section
in the Institute of the History of Literature of the Armenian Academy of Sciences.
To this should be added the Philharmonic Society, the concerts, and the variety
shows.

The author of this article was privileged to lecture on the theater in the
Writers' Union, the Theatrical Institute, the Theatrical Society and to theater
casts.

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

What were playwrights, producers, actors then working on? What do play
audiences want? The basic theme which holds the attention of all is the man
of our time.

Let me explain. The classic works of Armenian, Russian and West-European
playwrights have won favor with the Armenian theater-goer. Continuing the
honored traditions of the great Armenian actors of the past, the Armenian theater
has bred in the public a love of classical plays. But in the more than twenty-five
years that have passed the estabHshment of the Armenian state, a modern
repertoire has been created. The heroes and fighters of the Revolution, the
builders of the new state, constitute the themes of modern Armenian plays.

When we speak of the contemporaneous in modern Armenian drama,
however, we have in mind more particularly the events and heroes of the
war and the post-war period.

The victory over fascism, the reconstruction as outhned in the new five-year
plan, the people of the Soviet state and era — ^these are not trite themes. They are
qualitatively new : and their distinguishing features set them apart from the
ordinary. To dramatize such an era on the stage, to portray its people and their
heroic deeds, to rear the growing generation in the romanticism of great feats,
to raise the self-esteem of the theater-goer — that is what the public wants from
the theater.

The play, The Monastery Gorge, is a case in point. The events in it relate
to the days when a mortal fight was in progress against the fascist invaders in
the Caucasus. The action is staged in an Armenian collective farm from which
all the grown men have gone to defend the homeland — the future fate of the
country, the people, the state itself being the issue not only at the front but also
back home in the village.

In 1 946 the play had been running for two years on the stage of the leading
Armenian theater. It had been translated into Russian and was soon to appear
on the stages of the theaters of the fraternal republics.

Who constitute the main theater-going public ? This is difficult to answer, for
in all the theaters of Yerevan I saw people from all vocations. The young people
were in preponderance.

After performances it was pleasant to walk out of the theater leisurely and
hsten to the ardent discussions among the audience about the play, the acting,
and the stage.

Which theater is the most popular? The one which stages plays that have
won the public, as for instance Chukhajian's opera Arshak II, the presentation
of which made theater history. Theater-goers wait impatiently for the nights
on which this opera is presented. The people respond to great ideas artistically
presented. Several thousands attend the Yerevan theaters every night. As many
go to the cinema. Scientists and artists have their own evenings nearly every day.

Culture and entertainment of the highest order are a prerogative of night
life in Yerevan.

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ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

MEN OF SCIENCE AND SCHOLARSHIP

One bright morning in late October a group of scientific workers made
their way to the "city of science" — the section of Yerevan where the university,
the institutes, the pubhc Ubrary, the Matenadaran and other scientific and cul-
tural institutions are centered. Some were hurrying to attend lectures at the
university, others were on their way to a meeting of the senate, still others to
work in the pubUc Hbrary. Someone pointed to a tall, slightly stooped figure of
an old man on the other side of the street — Garegin Levonian.

For fifty-four years this son of the famous bard Djivani has been engaged
in research in art, the theater, the history of the press and folklore. He works
intensively, with extraordinary enthusiasm and productivity. Levonian has won
fame and recognition for himself by his many researches and scholarly publica-
tions. He is most remembered for his Gegharvest (Art). Excusing myself from
my companions I hurried to the other side of the street to catch up with the
elderly scientist. He recognized me at once and took my hand with joy. Walk-
ing together slowly uphill he asked me whether I had seen his latest book.

"Yes," I said, "I have even bought a copy." We were talking about his
new book, Hai Geerke Tev Tpagrakan Arve$te (Armenian Book Making and
Printer's Art), a scholarly work then just published.
"And how is your health?" I inquired.

"Not so well. I cannot say that it is due to old age. Men who are older
than I, for instance, Yervand Shah-Aziz, work harder, but I do not work at
full strength."

Garegin Levonian is seventy-eight years old; Yervand Shah- Aziz, ninety-
one ! Indeed Shah-Aziz works hard and with amazing productivity. How may
one resist regarding this group of venerable scholars without envy? Other aged
academicians who still vv^rote and published much then were Stepannos Mal-
khasian,^ Hacob Manandian and Hratchya Ajarian. Younger scholars worked in
honest competition with these venerable masters.

Let me describe here briefly how Armenian scholars work, plan and execute
their projects.

The Institute of the History of Literature of the Armenian Academy of
Sciences is headed by Khoren Sarkissian. It is beyond the scope of this article to
go into the role and significance of this research institute. This much, however,
needs to be said, that there are many organizational problems in the institute,
as is the case of all such bodies, to which the director devotes a good portion of
his time. Khoren Sarkissian's major achievements, however, lie in another di-
rection. He is an active member of the Union of Writers, works much on prob-
lems of modern Armenian literature, lectures on the history of literature in
higher educational institutions, has edited the literary legacy of Academician

^Now deceased.

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LITERARY PILGRIMAGES TO ARMENIA

Manouk Abeghian, and devotes time to his own scientific investigations. Here is
how he described his work-day :

"Until 1 :00 p.m. I work on my manuscripts either at home or in the In-
stitute — writing, editing, and so forth. Lectures, meetings, visitors, interviews,
in short, all other matters I attend to in the afternoon and evening."

During my 1946 visit to Yerevan he had just published a volume of essays
on Soviet writers and their work during the war.

I was present at a meeting of the senate of this Institute, held in connection
with the two-thousandth anniversary of the Armenian theater. Khoren Sarkis-
sian was in the chair, not only as director of the Institute but as leading authority
on this subject, which indicates that the director himself takes an active part
in the pursuit of the problems of scholarship alive at any time, working hard in
the preparation of the sessions devoted to them.

Khoren Sarkissian belongs to the middle generation of scholars, having
acquired his learning in the years of Soviet rule.

But there is a still younger generation, those who began their scientific
career in the pre-war years, or even during the war. An outstanding represen-
tative of this group is Aramais Mnatskanian, whom I met in Yerevan, whose
successes and energy aroused my profound admiration.

Before the war, he was the editor of the youth paper Avangard. The war
years were spent at the front editing army newspapers in the Armenian language.
He was with the army at Kerch and in the Caucasus. In 1946 he was engaged
in scientific investigations in Yerevan. In the course of three or four meetings the
young scholar outlined to me his research projects with great enthusiasm. While
yet editing the newspapers for the war front, he had been busy planning for his
future work. When the war ended he submitted a thesis for his master's degree
in history. At the same time, he collected the data for a comprehensive work
(of six-hundred pages) on The Armenian Front-line Press During the War.
The value of this work is self evident.

While in Tbilisi, Mnatskanian studied the archives of Alexander Myasni-
kian-Martuni, prepared a plan for a monograph on him, and collected the
necessary data.

In addition to all this Mnatskanian had gathered all the necessary material
for his future doctoral dissertation on "The Defense of the Caucasus in the
Great War."

Aramais Mnatskanian is not a unique case. He is merely an example of
how scholars, old and young, are working eagerly and constructively in Soviet
Armenia, striving to enhance the cause of the discovery of truth and of human
happiness as they move from one achievement to another. In that kind of service
they are finding the fullest joy and meaning of life for themselves and their fel-
low men.

175

A Brief Sketch of Armenian History

Mainly from French Studies*
By Vazkene Aykouni

III.

MOVEMENTS FOR LIBERATION

A fact of capital importance encouraged the Armenians to continue the
fight for their independence. In the north, Russia planned to move towards the
Caucasus and openly proclaimed herself "protector of the small Christian coun-
tries." Moreover, the Armenians had never despaired. They firmly believed
in the resurrection of their country. "The moral energy of nations," said Berg-
son, "like that of individuals, is sustained only by an ideal superior and stronger
than themselves, and to which they cling solidly when they feel their courage
is wavering." The Armenians managed to maintain and nourish that ideal with
their blood. In the mountainous regions they even succeeded in retaining a
measure of national autonomy such as at Karabagh and in Zeitoun, Many local
princes succeeded in governing their lands uncontested.

The Armenian Church, on her part, encouraged movements of emanci-
pation and exhorted the people to unite and drive out the hated enemy.

In 1678, Catholicos Hacob IV held a council in Echmiadzin, the See of the
Armenian Church, which was attended by a number of Meliks, members of the
Armenian nobility in that region. The council resolved to appeal, through the
Pope, to the western powers, to recover the independence of Armenia. A dele-
gation headed by the Catholicos set out for Rome. But the Catholicos died in
Constantinople, and the delegation disbanded. The young patriot, Israel Ori,
only nineteen years old, who had been a member of the group, decided to carry
on alone. He succeeded in getting the support of John-William, Prince of
the Palatinate.

Later, under Catholicos Nahapet I (1696-1705), successor of Hacob IV,
a new mission was sent in the person of Israel Ori and Minass Vardapet, the
head of the Monastery of St. James in Armenia, to Pope Innocent VII.

After having visited the Holy Father and solicited his mediation, Ori and
Minass Vardapet went to the court of John-William, where they were given a
warm welcome. John- William commended them to the good will of Emperor
Leopold I ; and the Emperor advised them to appeal also to Peter the Great.
Peter promised his support (1699) for the liberation of Armenia. But with

*Translated by Edward Nadir.

176

A BRIEF SKETCH OF ARMENIAN HISTORY

Ori's death in 1711 the promises of Peter, who had had his hands full with his
war with Charles XII of Sweden, came to a disappointing end.^

Later Russia declared war on Persia and sent an expeditionary force against
her on October 1, 1722. Echmiadzin and a large part of Armenia had been un-
der Persia for quite some time. At the signing of the peace treaty the following
year, however, Armenia was left out.

Abandoned to a cruel fate by friend and foe, Armenians took matters into
their own hands, under the leadership of David Bek, the great Ajiiienian military
and partisan leader.^* The revolt spread throughout Caucasian Armenia. In
Karabagh the Meliks rallied around the cause for independence, which took
the form of guerilla warfare and lasted for many years.

The Turks, who had been on the watch, were not slow to jump in and fish
in the troubled waters. They declared war on Persia and seized the provinces
of Yerevan and Nakhichevan. These misfortunes, however, instead of muffling
the spirit of the Armenians, reaffirmed in them the determination to resist op-
pression and regain their liberty. They did not waiver for a moment even in
the most critical period of their adversity.

In 1768, during the Russo-Turkish war, Catherine the Great lavished on
the Armenians promises for independence. False promises ! Armenia continued
to bleed and suffer. In 1796 the entire population of Julfa was massacred by
the Persians. The Russians intervened and forced the Persians beyond the Araxes
River. The Treaty of Gulistan (1813) gave aU Transcaucasia to Russia.

In 1826, however, Abbas Mirza, the eldest son of the Shah, led in a plot ; an
armed band invaded the provinces ceded by the Gulistan Treaty. The Russians
took counter measures. The Armenians joined forces, with the blessings of
Nerses Ashtaraketzi, then Prelate of the Armenians in Georgia, later Catholicos
of all the Armenians. The result was the Turkmanchai treaty of February 10,
1828, which provided for the annexation of the provinces of Yerevan and

lA fairly detailed account of the amazing one-man mission of Israel Ori and its results,
cut short only by his untimely death, is to be found in Michael Varandian's Haikakan Sharzh-
man Nakhapatmutiune (History of the Antecedents of the Armenian Awakening), Geneva,
1912, Vol. I, chapter V. This two-volume Armenian work of Varandian is one of the best
treatises on the history of the early struggles of the Armenians for freedom and inde-
pendence. — Ed.

la- The life and exploits of this great Armenian hero were filmed in 1944 in Yerevan, both
in the Armenian and Russian languages. A good biographical sketch is to be found in
H. Ajarian's Hayots Andsnanouneri Bararan (Biographical Dictionary of Armenians), Yerevan,
Publication of the University, 1944, vol. II, pp. 59-62. Professor Ajarian lists the follow-
ing biography on David Bek: Entir Patmoutiun David Bekeen Tev Paterazmats Hayots
Khapanu (Select History of David Bek and of the Wars of the Armenians of Khapan),
Vagharshapat, 1871 ; Rafii, Khamsayi Melikutiunnere (The Melikdoms [Principalities] of
Khamsa), and his historical novel David Bek; Leo, Haik. tbagr., vol. II, pp. 351-383;
M. Nersissian, "The Repercussions of David Bek's Movement in Vaspurakan and Neigh-
boring Provinces," Teghek. Armfani, 1941, No. 5, pp. 73-75, concerning the meeting in
1722 on the island of Lim, called for the purpose of planning the Armenian revolt in
Vaspurakan. — Ed.

177

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Nakhichevan to Russia. That was an intimation of the kind of response Tsarist
Russia was ready to give to the appeal of the Armenians for help in their struggle
for independence. The project of an autonomous Armenia within Russia was
unceremoniously buried by the Viceroy, Paskevich, who abolished all the privi-
leges which had been previously granted the Armenians by Peter the Great and
Catherine II. A new code, the Polozhenie (March 11-23, 1836), placed all
their religious and national affairs under Russian control. The directing policy
of Russia back of all this seemed to be the overall political and strategic interests
of the empire. The Armenian plateau was necessary for the defense of the
Caucasus, where the Armenians could be used to check the Georgians and the
Turks. To the Armenians, nevertheless, the self-seeking domination of a far-
flung Christian empire relatively new in the field was preferable to the unmitigated
oppression of an ever-present Mohammedan neighbor, who also had been an
ancient enemy.

It was thus that when the Russians now marched against Turkey, and trans-
formed another portion of Armenia to a theater of operations, the Armenians
once more made common cause with them and extended them their unqualified
support. Perhaps, they thought, not altogether unjustifiably, as has been amply
demonstrated in the case of the Balkan nations, their long-hoped-for dream would
be finally realized. They did not hope for long. The Treaty of Adrianople
(1829), thanks to the intervention of the western powers and particularly
England, covetous rival of Russia, saved the day for the Ottoman empire. The
Turkish empire had been on the verge of collapse. General Diebitsch had cap-
tured Varna, Silistra, and Adrianople in Europe, and General Paskevich had
taken Kars and Erzeroum in Turkish Armenia. Even Constantinople would
have gone to the Russians, had they not been restrained from taking it by con-
siderations of foreign intervention. The French minister of foreign affairs,
De Polignac had proposed the partition of the Turkish empire and a complete
revamping of the map of Europe. The Treaty of Adrianople put an end to all
this. Russia restored almost all her conquests in Turkey. With that the future
of the Armenians in Turkey was worsened, since they had compromised their
position with the Turks by their active sympathy for the Russian cause.

Thereafter England tried to extend her protection to the Christian minori-
ties in Turkey to counteract the Russian influence, but her interventions instead
of mitigating the suffering of the Armenians brought upon them the worst
calamities in their long and tortuous history.

During the nineteenth century a strong autonomist movement in the
Armenian colony in Constantinople, led by a group of young Armenian intel-
lectuals who had completed their studies in Paris and returned home, alarmed
the Turkish authorities. The "autonomists" sought a liberal constitution which
would grant their communities the right to administer their own affairs.

In 1839 Sultan Abdul Mejid had proclaimed the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhane,

2See Aremenian Affairs^ Winter 1949-1950, Vol. I, no. 1, page 103.

178 .

A BRIEF SKETCH OF ARMENIAN HISTORY

the famous reforms known as the Tanzimat. Back of this was the Greek mas-
sacres in Constantinople in 1821 and on the Island of Chios the following year,
as a result of which Europe had demanded of the Turks the institution of reforms
"without delay."

Similarly, after the massacres of 1845 in Lebanon, and the subsequent
pressure from Europe, the Sultan signed the Hatt-i-Humayun, a decree guaran-
teeing freedom to all citizens without any distinction and affirming their equality
before the law.^ The decree also gave to the non-Moslem communities in the
empire the right to administer their affairs through representative bodies. To
this end they were invited to submit to the government the reforms they deemed
useful.

The Armenians elaborated an organic constitution,^ comprising ninety-nine
articles, which was ratified by the Sultan Abdul Aziz (March 17, 1863), and
put into effect at once.

The hades or royal decrees promulgated with great fanfare, however, were
to remain a dead letter. The Armenian Constitution did not prevent the Turkish
and Kurdish bandits from oppressing the Armenians residing in the provinces
of the interior. The European embassies in Constantinople were too far removed
from the scene to be able to restrain the outbursts of violence against those whose
security they had undertaken to safeguard.

In 1867 the Sultan sent an army of 150,000 men to "appease" the town
of Zeitoun, the Armenian "Montenegro," which had only 20,000 inhabitants,
and which during the course of its late history had risen more than thirty times
against the despotic rule of the Sultans.

The Armenian National Assembly in Constantinople, created under the
Constitution, in response to the many heart-rending reports of the despairing
conditions in the interior of the country, submitted a strong protest to the Turk-
ish Government.

The Armenian question thus started to take shape.

About the time Bosnia-Herzegovina rebelled against Turkey, Patriarch
Varzhabedian appealed (December 7, 1876) to the British Ambassador in
Constantinople, Sir Elliott, and informed him that uprisings in the Eastern
provinces could be imminent if His Excellency thought this might help to bring
the Armenian question to the attention of Europe. But would not such a
rebellion bring about the immediate intervention of Russia?

The Patriarch, while awaiting an answer — which he never received — filed
complaints with the Turkish Government for the ills done to his people. This
also was ignored, the Government attempting to stifle the demands.

nbid., pp. 103-104,

*Which is still in force today.

179

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

In 1878, the year after the Russians had resumed hostilities against Turkey,
when the parties had sat at San Stefano, a suburb of Constantinople, to draw a
peace treaty, Patriarch Varzhabedian, in full accord with the Armenian Na-
tional Assembly, made a supreme appeal on behalf of his people to Grand Duke
Nicholas. The Grand Duke, impressed with the case of the Armenians, appealed
in turn to his brother. Tsar Alexander II, and obtained the insertion of a special
clause in their favor in the ensuing treaty. In effect. Article XVI of this instru-
ment said :

As the evacuation by the Russians of the territories they had occupied in
Armenia, which are to be returned to Turkey, could be the cause of conflicts
and complications detrimental to the good relations between the two coim-
tries, Turkey pledges to realize without delay the reforms and ameliorations
necessitated by^ the local needs in the provinces inhabited by the Armenians
and to guarantee their security against the Kurds and the Circassians.

Great Britain, however, had won a great diplomatic victory shortly before
the Treaty of San Stefano had been concluded. Through the Cyprus Conven-
tion (June 4, 1878), concluded with the Government of the Sultan, the Island
of Cyprus had been placed at her disposal, ostensibly to enable her to watch
the execution of the Reforms, but in reality to guarantee the integrity of the
Ottoman empire. The Convention stipulated :

In case Batum, Ardahan and Kars or any of these places would be
retained by Russia and, if, at any time Russia did try to appropriate any
portion of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan's territories in Asia defined by the
final peace treaty, England pledges to unite with His Imperial Majesty for the
defense of the said territories by force of arms.

His Imperial Majesty the Sultan promises England to introduce the neces-
sary reforms (to be later decided by the two countries)^ concerning the satis-
factory administration and protection of the Christian subjects and others of
the Ottoman empire, who live in the said territories; in order to enable Britain
to insure the necessary means for the execution of her commitments. His
Imperial Majesty the Sultan agrees to assign the Island of Cyprus to be occu-
pied and administered by England.

This Convention was signed secretly, without Russia's knowledge. On
May 18-30, 1878, almost at the same time, another secret accord was concluded
in London between Chouvaloff and Salisbury, acting respectively for Russia

^The Russian Plenipotentiaries had proposed : "the Administrative autonomy demanded by . . ."
Italics ours.

^This provides the key to the Armenian problem. It underlines the reciprocal distrust which
Russia and England kept alive. Article VII of the ChouvalofF-Salisbury agreement betrays
the intentions of each of the two rivals to take, along with the Porte, the initiative of the
Reforms and to eliminate the third power.

180

A BRIEF SKETCH OF ARMENIAN HISTORY

and Great Britain. Article VII of this agreement stipulated that the promises
made to Armenia by the preliminary treaty of San Stefano must not concern
Russia exclusively, but also England; while under Article X Russia agreed to
evacuate and return to the Turks Alachguerd and Bayazid. Finally under
Article XI England took note of Russia's pledge not to extend her frontiers in the
future in the direction of Turkey in Asia.

The Armenian question w^as thus beginning to assume international dimen-
sions. It was no longer a question of internal reforms, as Russia desired it, nor a
bilateral accord as planned by England,

Not long after, Armenians learned that the Treaty of San Stefano would
be revised in Berlin (July 1-13, 1878) by the great powers, A deputation made
up of Khrimian Hairik, Monsignor Khoren Nar-Bey, and Stepan Papazian,
assisted by Minas Tcheraz, the latter as an interpreter-secretary, went to Berlin
and pleaded for an administrative autonomy for Armenia, hke the one granted
Mount Lebanon. Unfortunately, their mission did not succeed. Lord Salisbury
resented the first part of the San Stefano clause (Article XVI). He insisted on
the absolute necessity of Russian troops withdrawing even before the execution
of the reforms. Article XVI of the Treaty of San Stefano was therefore "re-
touched" by the master stylists of diplomacy at Berlin and became, by inversion.
Article LXI of the Treaty of Berlin. But it was distorted to such an extent that
it was no longer recognizable. It read :

Turkey pledges to fulfill, without further delay, the ameliorations and
reforms necessitated by local needs, in the provinces inhabited by Armenians,
to guarantee their security against the Circassians and Kurds. From time to
time she will inform the powers of the measures taken to this effect. The
powers will supervise the application of these reforms.

This was the end of the dream for autonomy. The Armenian delegation,
disquieted by this inversion of justice, submitted (July 13, 1878) the following
note of protest to all the plenipotentiaries, excepting the Turkish delegates :

The Armenian deputation expresses its regrets that its legitimate and moderate
demands have not been accepted by the Congress.

We believed that a nation of a few millions like ours — which has not been up
to the present the instrument of any foreign policy, which, though more oppressed
than the other Christian populations of Turkey, has caused no trouble to the Turk-
ish government, and which, although without ties of religion or origin with one or
another of the great powers, is Christian like all the other Christian races of Turkey
— could hope to find in our century the same protection granted to others.

We believed that such a nation, free of all political ambitions, should have
acquired the right to live its own life and be governed on its own ancestral land by
Armenian functionaries.

The Armenians now realize that they have been mistaken, that their rights
have not been recognized, because they have been peaceful, and that the mainten-

181

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

ance of the independence of their ancient Church and nationality has not helped
them in any way.

The Armenian deputation will return home with this lesson in mind. It declares,
however, that the Armenian people will not remain silent until Europe gives satis-
faction to their just demands.'''

In the dark days of disappointment and disillusion which followed Mon-
signor Khrimian said : "You can't eat harissa with a paper spoon ;"* by which
he meant, appeals and memorandums do not suffice in this kind of world ; one
must resort to force to end social wrong and achieve political ends.

The Turks were determined to make no concession, however small, except
on paper. The Armenians were uncompromising in their demand for the
application of the treaties; while Bekir Sami Pasha recruited the Hamidie
troops, which later became notorious for their cruelty.

Finally the Ambassadors of the six great powers, tired of waiting for the
fulfillment of the Sultan's pledge, presented a note to His Majesty (June 11,
1880) demanding the execution of the reforms.

As the answer of the Ottoman government did not give satisfaction, they
repeated their demand on September 7 of the same year. The Sultan, well
informed about the dissensions among European powers, and an expert by this
time at beating them to their game, continued to disregard their orders and pleas.

In the meantime the situation of the Armenians worsened. Political cen-
sorship silenced the press. It was reported that many cases of books on chemistry
were burnt in the custom house of Constantinople by officials who, because of
excessive zeal or sheer stupidity suspected in the formula H^O an attack on the
sacred person of the Sultan : H^ being interpreted as Hamid II, and O as zero ;
in the minds of these "clever" officials the formula had meant : Hamid II equals
zero. The poor Sultan !

Against the mounting repressive measures of the Sultan at home, a revolu-
tionary press arose abroad. Megrditch Portoukalian, a political refugee, estab-
lished a printing press in Marseilles and published the newspaper Armenia.
Other revolutionary publications abroad, such as Hunchak and Dashnag, organs
of the political parties of the same name, re-aroused the people at home to shake
ofT the yoke of the Tyrant. The Hunchakian party was founded in 1887 and
the Dashnag party in 1890. Both were given to the creation of an autonomous
Armenia governed along social democratic lines.

The British consul at Erzeroum, Colonel Chermside, cabled in 1 890 : "The
secret groups organized lately at Erzeroum and in the prinvinces, the attempts
to secure arms, and finally the recent events at Van and the surrounding region,

'From the French translation of Fr. Macler from the Armenian text of Mr. Saroukhan, in
the newspaper Asiatique, XI th series, Vol. V, No. 1, 1915, pp. 167-8.

^Harissa is an Armenian dish, a thick soup made of wheat or barley and small pieces of meat,
prepared during festive occasions. — Ed.

182

A BRIEF SKETCH OF ARMENIAN HISTORY

all are indicative of a serous discontent. It would indeed be strange to expect
anything but discontent."^

In 1894, a fight occasioned by the incursion of a band of Kurdish thieves,
who had come to Sassoun to steal cattle from the Armenian peasants, turned into
a massacre. The troops sent to reestablish order completed the work of pillage
and destruction begun by the brigands. In 1895, the same thing occurred in
Zeitoun. Blood flowed freely all over Armenia. By the end of 1896 300,000
Armenians had been massacred in cold blood. Europe was touched. Gladstone
publicly castigated the "Infamous Assassin." Germany and Austria kept a
criminal silence. England, France and Russia had elaborated (May 16, 1895)
a new project of reforms. But Russia backed out. Prince Lobanov-Rostovski,
then foreign minister of Russia, who had served as Russian Ambassador at Con-
stantinople in 1878-1879, was for an Armenia without Armenians. France
retained a passive attitude. The Sultan was pleased and quietly continued his
work of destruction. Freedom of action in this respect within his domain this
time was purchased with sympathy for Germany which dreamt of a Berlin-to-
Baghdad railroad.

The Armenians, however, were not the only ones who suffered under the
bloody despot. Other minorities, and even Turks were being ground under by
the unspeakeable tyranny. It was thus that in 1907 (December 27-29), a Con-
gress of revolutionary parties in the Ottoman empire met in Paris. A resolution,
passed unanimously, demanded the deposition of the Red Sultan, Abdul Hamid,
and the proclamation of a constitutional regime.

This was the beginning of the "Young Turk" revolution which flared in
1908. So far as the Armenians were concerned, however, the revolution ended
in a sham. In April 1909, a counter-revolution fomented by the same Young
Turks, who designated themselves with the attractive title of Committee of
Union and Progress, and paraded themselves as liberals, slaughtered another
30,000 Armenians in Adana.

During the Balkan wars, 1912-1913, when Turkey lost her European cities,
Russia again took the initiative for reforms in Armenia. A new delegation
was appointed by CathoHcos Georg V of Echmiadzin, of which Boghos Nubar
Pasha became chairman, with temporary headquarters in Paris. Sympathetic
Frenchmen joined in the struggle by carrying on an intensive campaign on
behalf of the Armenian cause. The periodical Pro-Armenia was revived under
the leadership of Francis Dehaut de Pressense, a prominent figure in French
politics, and Victor Berard, the French scholar and publicist.

The six big powers resumed their consultations. Andrei Mandelstamm intro-
duced a new project of reforms, to which the Ambassadors representing the
interested powers devoted seven meetings (July 3-23, 1913) .

^Mik. Varandian, L'Armenie et la Question Armenienne, p. 58.

183

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

But Russia, embittered by German reservations, decided to start private
negotiations with Turkey, Besides, in a note dated June 25, 1913, Russia had
declared herself against the partition of the Ottoman empire. What imperiaHst
Russia wanted was to reserve for herself the privilege to institute the reforms at
her own discretion, and was opposed to the interference of foreign powers in a
dispute between neighbors.

Germany, of course, would not agree to this. "German interests require the
protection of the provinces of Asia Minor and if Russia occupied them, Germany
would find herself confronted with an economic crisis," wrote a German news-
paper.^*^ "Our diplomacy must be on its guard against Russian threats to
Armenia."-^^

This required Russia to come to an understanding with Germany. Sazonov
the Russian foreign minister, convinced his German colleague Von Jagow that
the Russian government had no territorial designs in Turkish Armenia and that
its goal was limited to the introduction of reforms in the interest of Turkey and
her Armenian subjects. Following these assurances, and on instructions received
from his minister, the German ambassador at Constantinople asked Premier Said
Halim Pasha to comply with the Russian demands, "reduced to a minimum
thanks to German intervention."

A Russo-Turkish agreement was signed in Constantinople on January 26,
1914. According to this document eastern Anatolia was divided into two zones.
The western zone was composed of the vilayets of Erzeroum, Trebizond, and
Sivas; while the eastern part included those of Van, Bitlis, Kharput and Diar-
bekir. Each region was to be administered by a foreign inspector-general.

Hardly had the two inspectors-general, Hoff (Norway) and Westenenk
(Dutch), set foot in Turkey, preparing to assume their functions, when the
European War started. On August 6, 1914 a German-Turkish alliance was al-
ready concluded. In the first article of this pact Germany promised to Turkey the
abolition of the capitulations; by article five it was provided "to rectify the
eastern frontiers of the empire in such a manner that immediate contact be-
tween Turkey and the Moslem populations of Russia would be insured," The
pan-Germanists and pan-Turanists were to walk hand in hand !

By virtue of the same pact, Turkey entrusted to Germany the reorganiza-
tion of her armies. The Liman Von Sanders military mission was established in
Constantinople, Hoff and Westenenk were sent back home. Instead of reforms,
Turkey was to organize the inhuman deportations and massacres of 1915.

^^Magdeburische Z^itung, July 1, 1913

184

Briefs ...

Uncle Geer

By G. Eksoozian

Editorial Note

This character sketch is taken from a volume in Armenian, by Mr. Eksoozian,
given to short stores of first generation Americans of Armenian background. The
period covered is the last decade of the nineteenth and the first few decades of the
twentieth century. "Uncle Geer" and the other characters portrayed in the volume,
Kyanki ^civeshte (The Comedy of Life), are real people whom the author came to
know personally, as lawyer, compatriot, or friend.

Much of the credit of Kyanki ^aveshte as a contribution to American national-
ities history and literature goes to Mr. Garabed Aramian of Yeprad Press, who has
pioneered, at great effort and cost, in this type of publication. Such literature, he
believes, will constitute an important source for the social history of American
nationalities groups. The translator has succeeded in preserving the elegant sim-
plicity of the original and in eliciting the same sense of appreciation that one gets
from reading the Armenian text.

Jtl E was born in a little village in the province of Harput, Asia Minor, the
son of a farmer. During infancy, he lived in an atmosphere of love and devotion
in the quiet of their little home. His childhood was spent mostly in the fields and
vineyards. But when he reached young manhood, full of the vigor of life, for
some unknown reason, he left all behind, his home, family and farm, and went
on to foreign lands, Roumania, the Caucasus, Egypt, and finally came to America,
settling permanently in a far-off corner of a small Massachusetts town. Here he
has lived with his wife for the past forty years. They have toiled and sweated and
even now, after all those years, they are isolated, there being no public conveyance
coming near their farm, only a narrow path.

He is now nearly eighty and his back is bent like a bow, but it is easy to
see that he had been, in his younger days, tall of stature and broad of shoulders.
His white hair, deep voice, fine face is a picture of virile beauty that even the
ravishes of age could not completely obliterate.

It was a summer day, I went to see him on a special matter. At the entrance
to the farm I met Mrs. Loosig wearing an embroidered apron and busy feeding
the chickens.

"Good morning, Mrs. Loosig, how are you? How is Uncle Geer, how is
he feeling now?"

"Good morning. He is well, I am the sick one, but all who come inquire

185

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

about him." After this remark, Mrs. Loosig called to her husband with her
resonant voice.

"Giragos!"

There was no answer.

"Giragos, where are you?"

Again no answer.

Mrs. Loosig then turned to me and continued, "That man has gone off
somewhere again. The other day, I pulled him out of the ditch and if I had
gotten there a little later, he would have been dead. I told him this morning to
take it easy, but he claims he can't. He asked ?ne to hitdh the horse to the
wagon so he could take a few bushels of vegetables to the market, sell them and
with that money buy some meat, butter, salt. You know he can't even get on
or off the wagon alone. He takes the stuff to sell but brings back only half the
money he should. They all cheat him, right and left. I could do better myself.
Ah yes, as I said, he is becoming helpless."

"Giragos, where, where are you, the lawyer is here."

Then suddenly I spied Uncle Geer coming out from the com field, walking
slowly and bending low over a stick he held in his hand. He looked very much
Uke a large turtle.

"This is our lot," spoke Uncle Geer as he came closer. "I just returned
from the market, I'm all tired out, but what can I do, there's work on a farm
and it must be done.. Those rowdies in the market-place, I have my hands full
with them. They know I am no longer young and take advantage of me. They
climb into my wagon pull out the vegetables, sell them and bring me only half
the money they should. When I speak up, they promise to pay me the balance
the next day. When the next day comes, I either forget or they completely deny
owing me the money. Angrily I come home and here again I have no peace
with this wife of mine."

"Uncle Geer, let us sit under this apple tree, I have found a cure for all
your troubles, it is here in my portfolio. That is why I have come to see you, I
wish to have a talk with you."

Uncle Geer's tortured face now took on a look of surprise. He seemed
to sense a hidden danger and with obvious uneasiness shifted his body from one
foot to another and finally came and sat on the grass near me.

"Listen to me carefully. Uncle Geer," I said. "For forty years you have
toiled and sweated on this small strip of land you call your farm. But your luck
is against you, even people and nature itsdf are working against you. You have
done your share and now you are in need of rest. The hardships you undergo at
your age for a mere existence is simply against all human understanding, believe
me. So I have come to tell your wife and yourself how you can live comfortably

186

UNCLE GEER

for the rest of your lives. I am referring to the buildings on the main highway
going into town, not far from the river, on the slope of the hiU — the State Home
for the Aged."

"State Home for the Aged? Are you crazy, man? Woe be to your Home !"
burst out Uncle Geer and made an effort at rising and running away from the
distasteful suggestion, but his knees gave way under him and he tell sideways on
the green lawn. With some difficulty I sat him up again near me.

"Uncle Geer, there is no reason for resentment or anger," I said. "You
know that in this country even old and unprotected horses are taken care of.
That Home for the Aged is for those who have worked faithfully through the
years and are in need of rest and solace, especially when they have no one to
take care of them. If we can get a tenant for this place of stone and dirt, all
the better."

Suddenly, like one making a last effort to save his life, Uncle Geer by a
miracle stood upon his feet. Trembling and pointing his stick to the far corners
of his farm, he spoke with a husky choking voice.

"Listen, you, I don't want any part of your so-called justice, you pagans.
If all this is just stone and dirt for you, it isn't for me. For me they have a soul,
they are paradise. Forty years ago this land was as fiat as a handkerchief. With
my bare hands I have cleared and tilled the soil, planted every growing thing,
carried upon my shoulders each and every stone to build this house, I dug the
ditch — my very youth has gone into the core of this land. That is why this
farm is part of me, me — Giragos, and here it is, upon this land that I will die,
do you understand? Go tell your leaders that Giragos is an Armenian, an old-
type of Armenian who does not live on charity. I want no part of their Home
nor their cemetaries."

All this he said, then doubling over on his stick again walked towards the
cornfields from whence he had come.

Mrs. Loosig who thus far had been listening quietly to our conversation,
came closer to me as she wiped a tear with the end of her embroidered apron
and said, "Mr. Lawyer, please do not get angry at what Giragos just said. He
is the son of a well-known and well-to-do family. Do not blame him, we are
used to this."

Once again she raised her apron to her eyes, wiped a tear and followed
her husband. I was then convinced that neither the turtle could leave its shell
nor Giragos his home.

I walked away from that farm with a feeling of indescribable pride. I was
like an Armenian peasant who for the first time comes face to face with Mt.
Ararat.

187

Tribute to Armenians During
World War 11'

By Thomas A, Sparks, S.T.D.

Mr. Chairman, Distinguished Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen :

It gives me great pleasure to be able to speak to you at this time. First,
I bring you greetings and best wishes from the Right Rev. William T. Manning,
Bishop of New York, and from the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, which many
of you have visited, and I trust will continue to visit, there to find quiet, and
confidence, and strength in this time of world-wide-war and tumult.

For we shall need confidence, need it supremely, if the forces of right are to
triumph over the forces of wrong.

I am happy to speak to the members of the Armenian community here in
New York, not only because of the occasion of this meeting, which is assembled
here to express your patriotic feelings and your loyalty to the United States gov-
ernment and people, but because of what you yourselves represent so eloquently
in your long historic tradition stretching back to the most remote antiquity. No
nation, no race, no people, could have sustained for so long a period of time, so
continuous, and so noble a tradition unless its spiritual forces were deeply rooted
and tenaciously maintained under all conditions.

And it is the spiritual forces of all mankind that are now threatened. All
the higher powers of our human nature, and our best and noblest instincts, our
finest traditions, our most valued achievements, which are the flowers of long
centuries of man's upward struggle toward the stars, are now challenged by
brute forces in the name of what these ignoble forces term the "New Order." It
is no new order in any sense !

It is an old, old order that forward-looking men had come to think had been
left far behind in the course of human progress.

The so-called "New Order" aims at the reduction of the majority of man-
kind to the condition of slaves, who are destined to work and produce goods for
their masters, the self-proclaimed "Master Races."

No people, no nation, no group, which has any sense of freedom will tamely
submit to any such program of degradation.

And certainly not the many nations and peoples, great or small, who have
banded together in organized resistance against the common enemy.

It is a proud thing for any man to stand here and speak to you ! Among
the very earliest records of mankind are found the traditions of Armenia and
Armenians. Babylonia, Persia, Egypt, are venerable names in the treasure house

^Speech of the Rev. Thomas A. Sparks, S.T.D., before the Armenian Progressive League of
America on March 1, 1942, in New York City.

188

TRIBUTE TO ARMENIANS DURING WORLD WAR 11

of history, but before them there was an Armenia, an Armenia which held its
place proudly among those ancient cultures.

When Alexander the Great conquered all the known world, and sighed for
more conquests, he had to reckon with Armenia.

Armenia throughout the first four centuries of the Roman empire, while
brought into vassalage, was never thoroughly Romanized, for it maintained its
own language and customs under its own sovereigns. We do not know exactly
when Christianity began first to penetrate into Armenia, just as we do not know
this about a great many other places, but in the third century St. Gregory, styled
the Illuminator, did his great work of teaching and conversion. By him King
Tiridates (238-314) was baptized. Armenia thus was the first country to have a
Christian ruler. This antedates the Christian profession of the Emperor Con-
stantine the Great, who is often mistakenly set forth as the first Christian ruler.
The honor belongs to Armenia, which became the first Christian nation of the
world, and so the oldest in our great tradition of the most advanced civilization
of mankind. Illumination was sought for, illumination was found, and illumina-
tion prevailed.

And it has continued so. True it is that your nation has had great sorrows
and tribulations. Warred upon, evil-treated, decimated, yet never destroyed, the
Armenian people have always reformed their lives and have gone on with indom-
itable courage, as they do today.

Hence your great contribution to every nation that seeks the right. No
nation, large or small, poor or rich, when unjustly attacked by predatory gangster
nations, as they are now being attacked today, but can take to itself fresh inspira-
tion and new courage from the glowing example of Armenia.

And so it is the most natural thing in the world for you Armenians here in
America to proclaim your loyal helpfulness to America when she is under attack.
Loyalty and courage are your heritage and in your blood, and you would be
untrue to your own selves were you to do otherwise. I am sure you, seeing the
right, cannot do differently ! A tree is known by its fruit. You are doing the
natural and rightful thing.

Here in America we have upheld the great freedoms dear to free men
everywhere, and we are arming ourselves at an enormous and ever increasing
rate to maintain those precious rights. Men of many racial origins, be they
citizens, or guests among us, have rallied to the common cause for which we
fight. It is the common concern of all.

Speed is essential to our great war effort. We need to produce arms and
munitions with lightning rapidity. Nothing must stand in the way of this.
Better it is to forego some of our accustomed liberties and much of our ac-
customed luxuries, than it would be to lose the war. The only danger is that
people will underestimate the gravity of the situation for us, and want to take
things at their usual leisured pace, whereas we must rapidly achieve such a pre-

189

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

ponderance of weapons of all kinds that we can speedily wage aggressive "war
to the utmost ! Only that can achieve victory for us and our associates.

The criminal nations must be taught a lesson that will last a very long time,
and that lesson is that we count nothing dear when our liberty is threatened.

When that lesson is fully learned by Germany, Italy, Japan, and their
friends, then maybe they too will come to value the kind of freedom and right for
which we are willing to pay so great a price.

The United Nations, that great company of freedom loving peoples, firmly
united in a just war, will not sheath the sword until victory comes with the
defeat of those who have set themselves against civilization, against righteous-
ness, against the best that man has achieved.

Armenians, I salute you as brethren in a common sacred cause!

And may Almighty God bless our efforts for righteousness and justice for
the sake of all mankind.

Theodore Roosevelt and Armenia

From the March 1919 issue of The New Armenia
By Arshag Mahdesian^

X HE death of Colonel Theodore Roosevelt has deprived the Armenian nation
of one of its most illustrious and sincere friends. As his book, The Strenuous
Life, proves, Colonel Roosevelt long ago had interested himself in the Armenians.
On September 28, 1904, he received most cordially, at the White House, an
Armenian delegation, which, representing the Armenian Catholicos, had come
to this country to enlist the sympathy and assistance of the United States in re-
lieving the Armenians from Turkish persecution. During this reception, Mr.
James Bronson Reynolds, in his introductory speech for the Armenian delega-
tion, said: "Since 1895 more men, women and children have been massacred
in Armenia by the Turkish soldiers and their auxiliaries than were killed on both
sides in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870."

Then, President Roosevelt, amiably interrupting him, rejoined : "You are
quoting from my own book. The Strenuous Life. It was I who first made that
statement."

In his message to Congress in 1904, President Roosevelt declared that it
was inevitable that the United States "should desire eagerly to give expression
to its horror on an occasion like that of the massacre of the Jews in Kishinef, or
when it witnesses such systematic and long extended cruelty and oppression as
the cruelty and oppression of which the Armenians have been victims, and which
has won for them the indignant pity of the civilized world."

On another occasion he declared : "Over and above all considerations of
trade and politics we will continue to urge the cjaims of outraged humanity in
the stricken land of Armenia."

IFor a biographical sketch of Mr. Mahdesian see pages 201-203.

190

THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND ARMENIA

In 1905, President Roosevelt received from His Holiness Mekrtich I.
Klirimian, the late Catholicos of All the Armenians, a letter of congratulation
upon his election. The communication, written in the ceremonial form used
by Armenian rulers of the fifth century, read :

Mekrtich, Servant of Jesus Christ, and, by the inscrutable will of God, Chief
Bishop and Catholicos of All the Armenians, Supreme Patriarch of the Mother See
of the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Armenia, to His Excellency, Theodore
Roosevelt, President of the United States of America, greeting and patriarchal
benediction.

Your Excellency: God, Who in His providence, bestows grace and all good
gifts abundantly upon the worthy, has verily given Your Excellency a large measure
of His blessing, and has raised you to the high office for which you have proved
yourself so worthy in the past.

I consider it a great privilege and pleasure to extend to Your Excellency the
most sincere congratulations of myself and of the Church and the people I represent,
on the happy occasion of your receiving, as the most worthy person to be their Chief
Magistrate, the absolute confidence and approval of your great and enlightened
people.

It is a source of great satisfaction to me when I consider the comparatively
happy lot of those of my people who, having escaped the unbearable yoke of Turkish
tyranny and oppression, have taken refuge in your glorious country ,where while
earning an honest livelihood, they are being, at the same time, elevated mentally and
morally, sharing with all other citizens the full benefits of the freedom and civiliza-
tion of the United States. Would to God that the remnant of my people could
enjoy in their own country the same peace and quiet and the benefits of righteous
laws, with due protection of life, honor and property.

I pray Your Excellency to accept my profound respects and heartfelt thanks
for the very kind reception accorded to my delegates, the two Archbishops, who were
commissioned to plead the cause of the suffering Armenian people in Turkey. I
cherish the hope that the powerful voice of Your Excellency's Government will
eventually aid in bringing peace and justice to the people of unfortunate Armenia. . . .

Because of the strong sense of justice and righteousness President Roose-
velt was known to possess, many appeals were made to him in behalf of Ar-
menia. On January 18, 1906, Mr. James Bronson Reynolds presented to him
a f>etition in which prominent European statesmen, educators, publicists and
citizens, as Bjornstjerne Bjomson and Fridtjof Nansen, of Norway ; General
Booth, of the Salvation Army; Professor Wiindt, of Leipzig; M, Berthelot,
Professor Ernest Lavisse, Jules Claretie, Leon Bourgeois, Ludovic Halevy, Ana-
tole Leroy-Beaulieu, and Louis Blanc, of France ; and thirty-one senators and
twenty-five deputies of France, two senators and eleven deputies of Italy, two
senators and forty-seven deputies of Belgium, one deputy of Sweden, and eight
deputies of Denmark, fourteen English bishops, fifty-one professors of the uni-
versities of Great Britain and the Continent, besides many eminent citizens of
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Germany, Austria, Italy, Scotland, and
Ireland, had joined to save from total annihilation "the Armenian people whose
origin is the same as ours, and who have played an important part in the de-
velopment of civilization since ancient times."

At the same time, through the joint efforts of Armenia and The Friends

191

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

of Armenia, many distinguished clergymen, educators, philanthropists, governors
and mayors in all parts of the United States, adopted or endorsed resolutions
supporting the cause of Armenia. In response to all these appeals, the Honor-
able Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, wrote :

The sympathy of the American people with the oppressed of every country has
been repeatedly expressed by various branches of this Government, and in the case of
the unfortunate Armenians, has been eloquently voiced by the American nation itself.
There is no room for doubt in any quarter as to the desire of the President that these
Armenians should possess the security of life and property which it has been the
concerted aim of the European powers to assure to them. The sufferings of the
Armenian subjects of Turkey cry aloud for remedy and redress. They shock the
humanitarian sense of all mankind. . . . No right-minded man can witness §uch
occurrences without craving the power to prevent them. I most sincerely wish that
the United States had the power.

The ?ion possumus attitude of the Roosevelt administration toward Armenia
was diplomatically justified as the United States was not one of the signatory
Powers which had guaranteed, in Article LXI of the Treaty of Berlin, "ameliora-
tion and reforms" for the Armenian provinces then under the yoke of Turkey.
Colonel Roosevelt was perhaps explaining his former official position as well as
that of the United States when he said, in a letter dated July 10, 1918 :

We had neither the power nor the right ourselves to begin a world war by our
going to war with Turkey in the past, but now the world war has come, and we
are in it, now we can fight effectively beside our Allies. We have the only chance
that has ever been offered to us to interfere by force of arms in entirely disinterested
fashion for the oppressed nationalities that are ground under the Turkish rule. It
is a dreadful thing that we should fail to take advantage of this opportunity, and
it will be a lasting disgrace to our nation if we persist in the failure.

Owing to innumerable stories of the Armenian persecutions. Colonel Roose-
velt was led to fear that the new generation of the Armenians had lost its martial
prowess. During an interview granted by him to Armenian students in 1912,
he said : "I want Armenians to be able to bear arms just as they did in the days
of King Tigranes, so that in the next generation no one can say that the Christian
population of Turkey cannot fight."

The devotion, gallantry and valor displayed by the Armenians during
the war, their heroic sacrifices for the triumph of the Allies, were a cause of
great satisfaction to Colonel Roosevelt ; and, whenever an opportunity pre-
sented itself, he did not fail to plead for the independence of Armenia.

"I am doing everything I can, and shall continue to do everything I can
for the Armenians," he wrote to a correspondent a few days before his lamented
death ; and it is reported that one of his last acts was the signing of the petition
which was circulated by The New Armenia to urge prompt action on Senator
Lodge's Resolution in favor of a United and Independent Armenia.

When the grateful citizens of the new Armenian republic come to honor
the memory of their great friends, Theodore Roosevelt will be remembered
among the first of those who nobly and effectively championed Armenia in
her heroic struggle for national independence !

;92

Reports

The Internationalization of Jerusalem
And the Armenian Patriarchate

Editorial Note

The two papers presented here relate to the stand taken by the Armenian Patriarch-
ate of Jerusalem before the UN Trusteeship Council on the question of the inter-
nationalization of the Holy City. One is a report on the mission of Bishop Tiran to
Geneva and Jerusalem as the official representative of the Jerusalem Armenian Patri-
archate. The other is the original, undeleted text of Bishop Tiraii's letter on the subject
of the internationalization of the City, which appeared in the New York Herald-Tribune
of June 4, 1950.

The Roman Catholic press responded favorably to Bishop Tiran's letter, the second
of the two documents presented below. The Catholic News of New York, June 17, carried
this headline to an extended report on it: "Armenian Bishop Denounces Latest Holy
Places Plan. It Reveals 'Ignorance of Religious Conditions in Holy City,' Prelate Says."
In the body of the report the article spoke of Bishop Tiran as having sharply criticized
. . . and attacked the proposal of the 285 leaders. A similar report appeared in the
New World of Chicago, 111., June 16, 1950.

It has been suggested by one of the members of the editorial advisory board, who
has found these documents of particular interest, that an attempt be made to present
In the pages of this journal other viewpoints and give readers "a full picture of this
highly controversial issue." While public interest in it is alive, letters or articles on the
subject will be given serious consideration for publication.

The Mission of Bishop Tiran to Geneva and Jerusalem

His Grace Bishop Tiran, Primate of the Armenian Church in North America,
gave to the Diocesan Central Committee a report covering his activities during the
three months' trip he undertook as the representative of the Armenian Patriarchate
of Jerusalem. A summaiy of this report is given below:

In December 1947 the United Nations General Assembly resolved that in the
event the British Government withdrew from Palestine, the latter be partitioned
between Arabs and Jews, and Jerusalem be placed under the international authority
of the United Nations. Accordingly the General Assembly instructed the Trusteeship
Council to draft a Statute for the future international administration of Jerusalem
and to implement it by assuming sovereignty over the city.

Pursuant to these instructions the Trusteeship Council drafted a Statute and
voted on it in April 1948. However, on May 14, 1948 the British Government with-
drew its mandate from Palestine and the Trusteeship Council was unable to imple-
ment the Statute it had prepared. Meanwhile a war broke out between the Jews
and the Arabs, and the two opposing forces met in Jerusalem. The Arab forces
occupied the eastern sector of the city, and the Jewish forces occupied its western

193

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

sector. Finally, after a month, with the signing of a truce between the governments
of Jordan and Israel, a static situation was created which still continues.

However, in its session of December 9, 1949 the UN General Assembly by a
vote of two-thirds majority renewed its decision to internationalize the city, and
again instructed the Trusteeship Council to amend its earlier Statute in harmony
with the exigencies of the new situation and to implement the said Statute by estab-
lishing United Nations sovereignty over it. At the same time the General Assembly
invited the governments of Israel and Jordan to facilitate the implementation of this
resolution by their good-will and cooperation. The United States, Great Britain,
and certain other countries considered this resolution impracticable and voted
against it, declaring, however, that they would not oppose the resolution adopted
by the required majority. On the other hand, the governments of Israel and Jordan
were opposed to internationalization.

Nevertheless, conforming to the General Assembly resolution, the Trusteeship
Council began the task of executing its function and convened in Geneva on Janu-
ary 19, 1950 to deal, among other issues, with the question of internationalization,
and placed first on its agenda the question of amending the Statute drafted for the
Holy City.

The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which is one of the important re-
ligious establishments in the Holy City, having been apprised of this course of events,
appointed Bishop Tiran as its representative so that he might appear before the
Trusteeship Council and present the views of the Armenian Patriarchate relative to
the Statute to be formulated for the international administration of Jerusalem.

Upon receiving this authority, His Grace presented a memorandum to the
UN Trusteeship Council wherein he set forth the position and rights of the
Armenians in Jerusalem, indicated the favorable attitude of the Armenian Patriarch-
ate towards its internationalization, requested that the status quo be preserved, and
recalled that together with other religious insitutions the Armenian Patriarchate
should have a voice and its rightful place in the future administration of Jerusalem.

Meanwhile, before the Jerusalem issue reached the above- described stage, the
Very Rev. Yeghishe Vardapet, Locum Tenens of the Armenian Patriarchate, sug-
gested — in a personal letter to Bishop Tiran — that His Grace pay a visit to Jerusalem
during Easter to confer with him and with the members of the St. James Brother-
hood on various matters pertaining to the Holy See,

Accordingly, Bishop Tiran, with the counsel of the Diocesan Central Committee
left New York on January 23, arriving in Geneva the following day. In the interim
Bishop Tiran cabled to the Locum Tenens requesting that the Very Rev. Serovpe
Manoukian, who was preparing to come to the United States to raise funds for the
stricken Monastery and people of Jerusalem, make his journey by way of Geneva,
and there inform him of conditions In the Holy City and in the Armenian
Patriarchate.

Upon arrival in Geneva Serovpe Vardapet conveyed to Bishop Tiran a detailed
report concerning the situation, policy, and viewpoints of the Patriarchate. On Feb-
ruary 16 Father Serovpe left Geneva for Paris and New York.

The Trusteeship Council took up the Jerusalem issue on January 30 and
continued to deal with it until the early part of April. The main task of the
Council was the amendment of the Statute. But as the Council was about to take

194

THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF JERUSALEM

up this matter, M. Roger Garreau, the Council President, offered a new proposal
whereby the international sector of Jerusalem was to be merely a narrow strip of
the city extending from north to south and embracing the international shrines.
The city's western sector was to be left to the Jews and the eastern sector to the
Arabs. Fortunately this proposal received no support from the Council members
and it was set aside; whereupon the Council started the hearings of the representa-
tives of the various organizations intimately concerned with the fate of Jerusalem.
Only representatives of the twelve Council nations had the right to speak, make
official proposals, and vote. Others could present their views by permission of the
meeting or its President.

Opinions and suggestions on the Jerusalem issue were presented in person by
the two representatives of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchates of Jerusalem, by
the representative of the World Council of Churches, and by the Secretary of the
American Christian Palestine Committee. In addition, Roman Catholic, Jewish,
and Arab organizations conveyed their views by wire and letter to the Council
President.

The views of the Greek and Armenian Patriarchates were at all times presented
in comraon accord. Archbishop Germanos Thyateira, representing the Greek
Patriarchate, was heard three times on the stand of his Patriarchate. Bishop Tiran,
representing the Armenian Patriarchate, was heard on various occasions — eight
times in all. His first two extensive statements, after describing the position of the
Armenian Patriarchate, related to the articles of the Statute which contained pro-
visions constituting the Legislative Council for Jerusalem and the manner in which
its members were to be elected; the program, policy, and economic status of public
and communal schools in Jerusalem; the protection of the Holy Places; the status
of religious communities, and their mutual relations; and the preservation of the
status quo. Moreover, after the two initial reports he made six other statements,
at different times, three of which were given at the direct instance of the Trusteeship
Council and related to one or the other of the above-mentioned questions, amplifying
and elucidating them further.

The suggestions which Bishop Tiran offered to the Trusteeship Council for
amendment of the April 1948 Statute, were as follows:

That the Legislative Council for Jerusalem include an equal number of Christians,
Moslems and Jews, elected by popular suffrage;

That delegates, equal in number to half of the elected legislators, be appointed by
the officially recognized religious establishments, likewise in equal proportion;

That the city's schools be based on the communal principle, and each community
large enough to have a school of its own have the right to maintain such a school under
Its own direction and in accordance with its own language and traditions, but to enjoy
equal status with the public schools and be entitled to government subsidy:

That in the event of dissatisfaction with regard to any ruling by the Governor,
appeal be permitted to be made to the City's Supreme Court in disputes relating to the
Holy Places;

That the Statute contain clear and well-defined provisions for the preservation of
the status quo, that the state have no jurisdiction to intervene in the internal matters
concerning religious conununities;

That aside from the accepted laws of the municipal bodies, the Governor shall not
interfere in the construction, maintenance, and demolition of religious buildings, which
are not international shrines.

195

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Bishop Tiran made a point to have interviews with the Council members on
the above and related subjects dealing with the future status and administration of
Jerusalem. The important views expressed were considered by the Council mem-
bers, and the delegates of some of the member nations took the suggestions offered
and officially presented them in the form of proposals. The form and extent of
these proposals may be seen by comparing the April 1948 Statute with the new
Statute adopted in April 1950, and also by studying the considerations and sugges-
tions of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem as given in Bishop Tiran's state-
ments, particularly the second and subsequent ones.

When the second reading of the Statute was concluded and the articles were
voted upon, Bishop Tiran left Geneva (March 24) for the Near East to take part
in the religious festivities of Holy Week in Jerusalem, and to confer with ecclesiastics
and statesmen in various countries on matters relating to the Jerusalem Armeniar
Patriarchate, the life of Armenian colonies and the internationalization of the
Holy City.

On his way to Beirut the Bishop stopped (March 25) for a two-hour visit at
the Diocesan Offices in Cairo, where he took occasion to confer with Archbishop
Mampre. At Antelias, Lebanon, he was a guest for three days of His Holiness
Catholicos Garegin, and celebrated the liturgy in the Cathedral of St. Gregory
the Illuminator on the occasion of the annual pilgrimage to the Holy See of Cilicia.
During that period he also conferred with the director of the Monastery and the
Seminary, and addressed the students and seminarists. In Beirut he had special
talks with the president of the American University and the ministers of the
United States and the Kingdom of Jordan. At Amman, capital of the Kingdom of
Jordan, he visited the local church and school.

In Jerusalem, where he remained ten days (April 1-11), he took part in the
Easter festivities and called upon the Greek Patriarch, the Latin Patriarch, the
Minister of Great Britain, the Governor-General of Palestine, who is the personal
representative of His Majesty King Abdullah of Jordan. With ail these personages
Bishop Tiran conferred on matters pertaining to Jerusalem.

He also visited the principal establishments of the Armenian Monastery, the
Printing Press, the Gulbenkian Library, and the Seminary, where he addressed the
seminarists and assembled guests. He found that despite conditions of distress the
Brotherhood was faithfully carrying on its responsibilities in the Holy See.

At Homs, on his way to Aleppo, the Bishop had a personal interview with His
Beatitude Patriarch Efrem of the Syrian Orthodox Church, with whom he discussed
the situation in the Holy City and matters concerning the Armenian, Syrian, and
sister churches. In London, on his way back to the United States, Bishop Tiran saw
the Archbishop of Canterbury as well as Archbishop Germanos, the Greek Exarch
of Western Europe, discussing with both the issues pertaining to his mission. On
May 6 he returned to New York, and shortly after reported to the Diocesan Central
Committee.

Secretary of the Diocese of the
Armenian Church in North America
New York
May 18, 1950

196

THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF JERUSALEM

Letter Regarding the New Jerusalem Plan

To the Editor of the Herald Tribune:'^

Every true Christian, Moslem, and Jew must have read with concern the report
of the request which eighty-five prominent Americans have made in a letter to
President Truman on the question of the plan of internationalization of Jerusalem.

The question of Jerusalem must be viewed with full knowledge of the history
of the Holy Places in Jerusalem, of the status quo now obtaining in Jerusalem, of
the standing and interests of the various religious faiths and their institutions in
the Holy City, and the practical possibilities for solving the Jerusalem question on
a realistic and fair and equitable basis.

The letter mentioned above has been reported as referring to the "Catholic,
Protestant, Jewish, Greek Orthodox and Moslem Faiths" constituting the elements
in Jerusalem which would form the proposed commission having wide powers over
the Holy Places and being responsible to the Security Council.

The problem is too complex to lend itself to a discussion in the framework of
a letter. However^ the following points could briefly be made for the sake of a fair
presentation of the case.

The proposal made in the letter ignores at least one of the major religious
communities in Jerusalem — the Armenian Patriarchate — which has a history of at
least thirteen hundred years in Jerusalem, which is one of the three major partners
in the international Christian Holy Places in the City, which for about a thousand
years has been in possession of about one-sixth of the Old City, and which has the
largest national minority in the City under its jurisdiction, and which occupies the
most important Holy Place in Jerusalem outside the international Holy Places
directly connected with the ministry of Jesus. It also ignores the bishoprics of the
^ancient churches of the East, in Jerusalem, i.e., the Syrian, the Coptic and the
Abyssinian Churches.

The letter mentions the Protestants as if these were one coherent element
capable of unified representation. It confuses the different categories of religious
elements in the Holy City and classifies the various professions of the same faith on
the same level with the three principal faiths having claims on Jerusalem.

To say the least, it is doubtful whether a commission composed of the repre-
sentatives of religious faiths or institutions could wield political power in Jerusalem,
acting under the Security Council. It is at least doubtful whether the United
Nations machinery could, within the terms of its reference, create an organ within
itself dealing with essentially religious matters and with relationships between re-
ligious bodies.

^The passages in italics were not included in the Tribune, which gave the letter a promi-
nent place, and added the sub-title: "Proposal on Internationalization of the City Ignores
Armenian Patriarchate, Bishop says."

197

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

All the principal Holy Places, Christian, Moslem, and Jewish, are situated in
that part of the Holy City which is now occupied by the forces of the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan. There is no reason to believe that the Jordan government
would not fully respect the sanctity of these Holy Places and^ would prevent free
access to them. The letter says that the proposed commission "should authenticate
the Holy Sites in Jerusalem." But history and the status quo have already authenti-
cated these sites and a new authentication is quite superfluous, apart from being
impossible. As to the fourth "function" of the proposed commission, there is no need
for an international supervision over the restoration of the Holy Places damaged
during the war in Jerusalem, first because the principal international Holy Placef
have suffered no appreciable damage and, secondly, if any Holy Place has suffered
damage, it can and certainly should be repaired by the owner or owners of such
Holy Place. Therefore, if the City is going to remain divided, there is no need for
an inter-confessional commission.

It should be noted that the preoccupation behind the resolution of the UN
Gteneral Assembly concerning Jerusalem presumably was (a) that the Holy City,
being sacred to the three great religions of the world and the followers of these
religions having interest in it, the City should be under international administration,
and (b) that a divided Jerusalem would not be viable, and the inclusion of the City
in one or other of the two adjoining states would not be possible, and that therefore
Jerusalem should be made into an international Corpus Separatum.

The problem fundamentally is not the protection of the physical structure of
the Holy Places, which would be secure, one could venture to say, under any
administration. The problem is the preservation of the unity of the City in order
to make it viable and to allow the religious life and activity of the many institutions
in the City to develop and function freely and to the fullest extent.

Bishop Tiran

Representative of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem
before the Trusteeship Council of the United Nations
May 29, 1950

2"or" in Tribune.

198

Biographical Sketches

By A. Meliksetian
His Beatitude Cyril II, Patriarch of Jerusalem^

His Beatitude Cyril (Guregh) II, Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem, died on
October 28, 1949 in Beirut, Lebanon, where he had undergone an operation.

Patriarch Cyril was born in New Julfa, Iran, on January 6, 1894, the son of
Rev. Mashdots Israelian, a priest of the Armenian Church. He was baptized as
Tigran, and lived under that name until he took holy orders. After receiving his
elementary education in the local schools, 1900-1907, he was sent to Madras, India,
near his father, where he continued his studies in St. Joseph's French School. In
1908 he went to Calcutta for his secondary and higher education — in the Armenian
Academy and the University of Calcutta, graduating from both in 1911 and 1912,
respectively; and in 1914, from the divinity school of the University.

The outbreak of the war in 1914 interrupted his plans to enter the priesthood of
his church. In 1915 he was invited to teach in the Armenian Academy in Calcutta,
of which he became acting principal the following year.

In 1916 when Patriarch Torgom arrived in India as CathoHcal Delegate to the
Armenians in that country, Tigran, whose good work as educator became known,
was asked to accompany him as his personal secretary on the rest of his mission in
India and Egypt.

Later, from 1918 to 1921 Tigran again went into teaching, this time at the
Kalousdian High School in Cairo, Egypt, meanwhile serving as secretary of the
local diocese of the Armenian Church.

In September 1921, however, he again accompanied the Patriarch, this time
to Jerusalem in connection with the transfer there of Armenian orphans from
Mesopotamia. In Jerusalem Tigran entered the Brotherhood of the Monastery,
was ordained a deacon two months later, and started teaching in the Patriarchal
seminary. Then followed a series of promotions, commissions and new duties and
distinctions in quick succession: assistant secretary of the General Assembly of the
Brotherhood (1922), ordained archimandrite as Cyril by His Beatitude Patriarch
Tourian (July 10, 1923), custodian of the library of manuscripts and vardapet
(1925), member of the Synod (1929), principal of the Seminary (1930), member of
the Treasury Council (1933), grand sacristan (1939), delegate to Echmiadzin at the
election of the Catholicos, and Bishop-elect (1941), acting Patriarch (July 1944),
and Patriarch of Jerusalem on October 20, 1944.

Patriarch Cyril II was a man of unusual abilities and a courageous leader. He
gave full evidence of his qualities of responsible leadership particularly during the
struggle in Palestine in the past few years, when with fatherly concern and dauntless
courage he gathered under his refuge the stricken Armenians, reduced once more
to the status of refugees, providing them with shelter, protection and sustenance.

^See p. [132] of Frontispiece for a photograph of His Beatitude.

199

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

sharing with them their sufferings and caUing on Armenians everywhere to aid him
in the work of salvation. His premature death has been attributed to his heroic
efforts to save both people and institutions under his care amidst the most trying cir-
cumstances created by both sides in the Arab- Jewish struggle. No other ecclesiastic
of equal rank went through as much, worked with the same seemingly inexhaustible
energy, and sacrificed himself as he did. According to the testimony of distinguished
Americans on the scene, Patriarch Cyril stood out as the foremost ecclesiastic and
leader among his colleagues of other nationalities in Jerusalem.^

Here is how Dr. Carl Hermann Voss described him, after an audience with the
Patriarch in the summer of 1947:

"When Mrs. Voss and I arrived we were ushered to a spacious hall, at one end
of which stood an ecclesiastical throne. The building was beautiful and the hall was
decorated with unusual oil paintings of former Patriarchs, porcelain and other art
objects. The Patriarch entered in complete regalia. With his thick flowing beard,
elaborate robes and beautiful jewel-studded cross hanging from a chain on his chest,
His Beatitude was indeed as handsome a man as I have ever seen. He impressed us
at first as being a venerable old man, but the more we talked, the younger he grew
in our sight. He is full of zest and youthful spirit. He was exceedingly gracious to
Mrs. Voss, with whom he made more of a hit than any other man we met on this
trip — among them were Jan Christian Smuts in South Africa and Adolph Keller
in Geneva.

"The Patriarch is well aware and deeply appreciative of the work and leaders
of the Armenian National Council of America and the American Church Com-
mittee for Armenia.

"He is in command of a beautiful, classical English. His sentences are precise.
He has an excellent choice of words, a clear pronunciation.

"He gave us a very interesting account of the Armenian Church, pointing out
that it had made pilgrimages to the Holy City, Jerusalem, before any other church
group in the world.

"He was very reserved in discussing international issues, but did point out that
his people were getting along nicely and were receiving just treatment within the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. He was anxious to learn about America, and
when at the end of an hour's interview, we attempted to take our leave, he chided
us with the remark, 'You Americans are always in a hurry!'

"I was fortunate in being able to take a picture of His Beatitude on the back
roof of the Patriarchate. He invited us to visit him again."^

At the funeral rites many leading laymen, ecclesiastics, and public officials bore
witness to the great loss which the Armenians in the Diaspora had sustained by the
untimely death of the young Patriarch. His body was interred in the Court of the
Cathedral of St. James in Jerusalem on November 3 before high dignitaries of church
and state. Catholicos Garegin Hovsepian of Cilicia, together with other noted
Armenians accompanied the coffin from Beirut. The funeral procession started at

2S. H. T. "Patriarch Guregh II Israelian," Baikar, November 3, 1949, p. 2.

STaken from Press Release No. 9 of the American Church Committee for Armenia, New York,
February 18, 1948.

200

HIS BEATITUDE CYRIL II and ARSHAG MAHDESIAN

Ammaiij proceeded by way of the Austrian Hospice and Via Dolorosa, passing the
Seven Stations of the Cross, through the Christian quarter to the Jaffa Gate, then
by the Citadel of David, and on to the Armenian Monastery.

Most of the stores along the path of the procession were closed in honor of the
deceased, and in the prevailing silence the chanting of the dirges and the tolling of
the church bells of Jerusalem, including that of the Holy Sepulcher, filled the air
with solemn strains of the auspicious farewell. Policemen, boy scouts, bearers of
wreaths preceded the procession of choristers, deacons and priests. Catholicos
Garegin followed the casket accompanied by representatives of various religious
groups and heads of the Moslem Supreme Council. Other dignitaries marched next,
followed by a company of about seven thousand mourners.

The body was in state in St. James Cathedral through the night. At the funeral
services the following day, November 3, Archbishop Mampre Sirounian officiated,
and Catholicos Garegin gave the eulogy. Among the celebrities present were : Jamal
Bey Tokan on behalf of His Majesty King Abdullah, Mr. Jose Quimper representing
the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, the consular corps of
Britain, France, Italy, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Spain, delegates of the Inter-
national Red Cross of Geneva, and other government and civic leaders.

Arshag Mahdesian

Arshag Mahdesian, well-known Armenian leader and editor, died in Fresno,
California, on April 4 at the age of seventy-seven. He was born in Palou, Armenia
in 1873. Upon graduating from Euphrates College in 1896, he taught at that in-
stitution for four years, until 1900, when he came to the United States. Here he
studied at Yale for a while, and married.

Later with his wife, Christine, a cultured American who learned to speak
and write in the Armenian language, he published The New Armenia, in English,
and Ardziv and other periodicals in Armenian. Mr. Mahdesian was a man of vision,
courage, and had a keen sense of justice.^ His life was one long urge "to get the Eng-
lish-speaking public acquainted with the soul of the Armenian people — ^its history,
its literature, its cause, and its aspirations."^

The New Armenia first appeared as a monthly in Boston, Mass. in 1904, under
the name of Armenia; and continued under that of The New Armenia during the
first World War and after. Among its honorary editors were Julia Ward Howe,
Alice Stone Blackwell, Rev. Charles Gordon Ames, Edward H. Clement, editor of
the Boston Evening Transcript, Professor Albert C. Cook, William Lloyd Garrison,
James Bronson Reynolds, Professor William G. Ward and several other distinguished
personalities of the period. European honorary editors were Anatole France, Georges
Clemenceau, and Victor Berard. The publication was suspended from September
1907 to April 1910, and from October 1913 to January 1914 inclusive. From 1915

^Cf. reference to his relations with Vickery and the question of relief versus independence for
the Armenians, supra, p. 143.

2A. A. Bedikian, "Salesmen of A Precious Spirit," The Armenian Mirror-Spectator, July 15,
1950, vol. XIII, p. 1.

201

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

to October 1917 it was published as a semi-monthly and became a monthly
again in November 1917. The New Armenia ceased publication with the July-
September 1929 issue.

A copy of the magazine went to every member of Congress and other dis-
tinguished leaders in the United States and abroad. It was a costly enterprise —
costly in money, human effort and resourcefulness, and heroic sacrifice. That is the
story back of the checkered life of the publication. It could not have been supported
by subscriptions. The Armenian-American community was too yoimg to have
developed a sufficient number of English-speaking readers to underwrite it on a
business basis. What made the publication possible was the grim, steadfast spirit
of Mr. and Mrs. Mahdesian and a small band of faithful un-publicized sponsors,
who gave unstintingly, repeatedly, patiently, so that Armenia's cavise would not be
forgotten by default of Armenians themselves. Among this small group was Mr.
Ashod Tiryakian,^ the brother of Mihrtad, distinguished member on the editorial
advisory board of Armenian Affairs.

The Mahdesians, of course, gave most for they gave their all to it. They "lived
in a single room," says Mr. Bedikian, who knew tlie couple well. "They spent no
money on themselves for the barest necessities . . . starving half the time to keep
the publication going." Mrs. Mahdesian "devoted herself to the pursuits of her hus-
band, willingly and uncompromisingly suffering with him every imaginable depriva-
tion until her death some fifteen years ago. All the years I had known her I never
saw her with a new hat . . . year in and year out she wore the same hat until she
seemed a bizarre phenomenon in the streets of New York. That was merely a visible
indication of the deprivations both endured. But no one knew when they went
without food or adequate meals. Some of us knew that secret of their lives, too."*

Christine Mahdesian "lavished more love upon the nation of her adoption than
thousands of Armenian-born women have done, or would be willing to do. And she
did give up all that there was in her noble soul without claiming credit for so
generous a gift. . . . She wanted to remain behind the scenes. . . . When she was
laid to rest, at her simple funeral there were only a dozen people."**

After her death, Mr. Mahdesian, broken-down and broken-hearted, moved to
Fresno, California where he taught citizenship and English. In 1941 he was elected
member to Eugene Field, prominent authors' society, in recognition of his book,
Armenia, Her Culture and Aspirations.

Mr. Mahdesian was invited to serve on the board of editorial advisers of this
journal, but due to change of address or some other error the letter was never re-
ceived by him. He was an enthusiastic delegate to the World Armenian Congress in
1947; and there is little doubt what his answer to the invitation of the journal would
have been had he lived.

As a memorial to the thankless but important work done by Mr. Arshag

SAshod, says Mr. Bedikian, was "a rare spirit who had a quick eye in recognizing merit.
He was in a class by himself for understanding, generosity and patriotism." Ihid.

*Ibid.

^Ibid.

202

ARSHAG MAHDESIAN AND ARTAK DARBINIAN

Mahdesian and his faithful wife Christine, an editorial article which appeared in
the March 1919 issue of The New Armenia on "Theodore Roosevelt and Armenia"
is reprinted on another page of this issue of Armenian Affairs. An English transla-
tion of his brief address to the World Armenian Congress on May 3, 1947, in the
Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York, will be published in the next issue.

Artak Darbinian

Artak Darbinian, editor and public figure among Armenians in Diaspora, died
in Paris, France, on February 27 at the age of seventy-one. He was bom in Van,
Armenia in 1879. After starting his education in his native city, he found his way
to Persia, and thence entered the Georgian Seminary in Echmiadzin. He was thus
away during the massacres of 1895-1896, when the province of Van, together with
the other Armenian provinces in Turkey, lost 300,000 souls; and thousands of homes,
churches and monasteries were levelled to the ground. The city of Van itself, how-
ever, escaped the carnage due to the magnificent organized self-defense under the
leadership of the local political parties.

In the years that followed, Van with its outlying districts became an active
intellectual center. With its large Armenian population, the need for leadership
was great, and Artak was invited by the local diocese of the Armenian Church to
come and teach in the Zharangavorats seminary of Varaga Vank. Though he had
entertained dreams of further preparation in higher learning, he responded to the
call to teach at Varaga Vank, of which school he later became the principal.^ He
continued as teacher and principal until World War I. During that period he also
edited the newspaper Van Tosp, which was later re-established in Tiflis. In 1918
he edited ^hoghouurdi Dsayn (The People's Voice), daily newspaper in Yerevan,
and Apaga (Future), weekly in Paris. He contributed many articles to Armenian
papers in the Diaspora: and in 1947 published in Paris his book, Hai Azatagrakan
Sharzhman Oreren (Notes from the Days of the Armenian Emancipation Move-
ment), 1890-1940, 392 p.

He was fully qualified to write such a book. He had been a member of the
Armenakan Party, which had its origin on the soil where Armenians had been sub-
jugated to oppression by their Turkish overlords for centuries, and therefore a party
fully cognizant of the local needs and opportunities for emancipation, in contrast
to those political organizations which had their origin on foreign soil and were led
by "foreign" political adventurers. Artak Darbinian had also been the dominant and
weighty member at the second regional convention for Armenia of the Ramkavar
(Democratic) Party, which convened in Yerevan in 1919, from December 21 to 27.
This was to be expected, considering his experience in political life, his serious bent
of mind, and his ability to grasp the significance of events. The convention was to
discuss the stand of the party toward the regime then in power in Armenia, which
under Dashnag leadership was leading the country to its doom through mismanage-

iFrom reprint of biographical sketch by H. B. of Abaka in Baikar, June 3, 1950, p. 1.

203

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

ment and high-handed methods, a fact which events later confirmed.^ The follow-
ing year, in 1920, Darbinian was a delegate from Armenia to the third general con-
vention of the Party, which met in Constantinople (Istanbul).

After World War II he served as chairman of the Armenian Repatriation Com-
mittee of France. This was a natural assignment to him, even though in ill-health, as
he firmly believed that the only logical place for Armenians dispersed throughout the
world was the Armenian republic at the foot of Ararat. He did not regard the
Armenian Soviet Republic as the "lesser of two evils," as some "patriots" wish to
regard it, as a lever against the onslaught of the current anti-Soviet hysteria, or as
a concession to ideological conviction. He was convinced that the present order
in Armenia was the best guarantee for the full creative development of his people.

In a letter to a friend in the United States shortly before his death, he wrote:
"My heart is full of disquiet ... I can see before my eyes Turkish Armenia, in the
full sense of the word a wasteland divested of all its native elements, and the surviv-
ing remnants doomed to disappearance, with coercion, in the countries which
have offered them refuge. Whether we liked it or not, we had to accept the condi-
tions imposed upon us by the United States, France and Britain. Whether we
like it or not, in fifty years the Armenian name will disappear in these countries.
... If there is a comforting thought, that is the Armenia of today." ^

LEONGUERDAN

Leon Guerdan (born Gumushguerdan) author, journalist, and lecturer in
America and France, died in New York on December 15, 1949, at the age of sixty-
three. Born in Constantinople (Istanbul), the son of a businessman, he received
his higher education in Robert College, and then moved to Paris for further educa-
tion. After that he entered business. From the start, however, he impressed those
who came to know him more as an intellectual than as a businessman. Not long
after, Guerdan left the business world and gave himself to cultural, political and
social pursuits. Since 1929 he had published five books, all in the French language.
His volume dedicated to Dicran Yergat, Les Faux-Poids de la Balance, is regarded to
be the best. The others are: The False Weights of the Scales; The Reveries of
Bertran Berno; I Have Known Them All; and From the Bosporus to the Sky-
scrapers, the last published in New York.

After his arrival in the United States in 1941 with his family, Mr. Guerdan was
for a time editor of France-Amerique, the French weekly published in New York.
He has also translated into French Mrs. Sara Roosevelt's book. My Son, Franklin.

At the time of his death Mr. Guerdan was vice-president of the Central Board
of the Armenian General Benevolent Union, of which he had been treasurer for
twenty years. When the Central Board moved from Cairo to Paris, France, Boghos

2Rev. A. A. Georgizian, "Artak Darbinian — 'Worthy Son of Van.' Memoirs and Notes," VI,
Baikar, April 2, 1950, p. 1.

lAnushavan Der Megrdichian, "Artak Darbinian," Baikar, May 26, 1950, pp. 1 and 3.

SAram Krikorian, "Artak Darbinian — A Bouquet to His Memory," Baikar, April 9, 1950, p. 1.

204

LEON GUERDAN

Nubar Pasha, the founder of the AGBU, invited him to membership on the board.
His principal interest in the work of the AGBU was cultural. He was especially
interested in the Nubarian Library of Paris, of which he remained the head until his
removal from Paris. According to a friend, he claimed to have given to Boghos
Nubar the idea of the Armenian Home, a center of Armenian college and university
students in Paris. In 1947 he was chairman of the AGBU one million dollar repatria-
tion campaign.

Mr. Guerdan was deeply interested in the political destiny of his people, and the
welfare of his adopted country, France. His association with the France-Amerique
as editor was in connection with the liberation of France from Nazi domination
during the war years. Before the war he had been co-director of Les Conferences des
Ambassadeurs.

From 1919 to 1922 Mr. Guerdan served as counselor of the Armenian delega-
tion at the Peace Conference. In this he was closely associated with Boghos Nubar,
and dedicated himself to make the claims and the aspirations of the Armenians
known among the intellectual and political circles of France. Later, when K.
Noradungian became the chairman of the Armenian delegation, Mr. Guerdan
remained his counselor, and, after the dissolution of the delegation, served as
member on the central committee devoted to the interests of Armenian immigrants.
In 1947 when the World Armenian Congress was held in New York City Mr.
Guerdan participated with interest.

In 1934, after visiting Echmiadzin, in Soviet Armenia, in order to take part in
the election of the Catholicos, Mr. Guerdan "found the Armenian spirit renewed
within him. And he did not hesitate to bear witness in the interest of the Armenian
cause, whenever it became necessary, among us [the Armenians], as well as among
others." Thus spoke Hovhannes Boghosian, a friend in Paris, who had been in
close touch with him during the past few summers when Guerdan visited the French
capital^

Mr. Boghosian stated, on the basis of these contacts, that Mr. Guerdan under-
stood the circumstances of America's present policy, and was sure that Armenians
and their friends should continue to work in the interest of the Armenian cause
even in Washington; at least they should keep in close touch with the American
press. If Armenians, added this friend, had realized the importance and possessed
the means of making his voice heard in international circles, through the publication
of a periodical in the French or English language, Leon Guerdan would undoubtedly
have been its editor.^

IHovhannes Boghosian, "Leon Guerdan," Baikar, January 5, 1950, p. 1.

205

Books and Reviews

Country Without Economic Backbone

Reviewed by Emil Lengyel

TURKEY. AN ECONOMIC APPRAISAL. By Max Weston Thomburg, Grajiam
Spry and George Soule. New York, The Twentieth Century Fund, 1949.
322 pages. $3.50.

This book gives a complete picture of Turkish economic life in our days. It
tells us how the people of Turkey live and work on their farms, operate their mines,
industries, transportation systems, banks and foreign trade.

The Armenians are mentioned in this book, since they were the most im-
portant minority engaged in economic pursuits under the old Ottoman rule. When
the Kemalist revolution came, it brought forward leaders who had belonged to the
ruling class of the Sultan's realm, an official, land-owning or military oligarchy,
which had never engaged in business and trade. These people looked down on the
Armenians and Greeks, the authors tell us, and considered them an unwelcome,
alien element. The reader is left with the impression that if these minorities with the
economic know-how had not been eliminated, the economic condition of the Turk-
ish republic might be far more favorable today.

The authors describe the wealth of Turkey, a country of varied resources,
natural and human, with rich mineral deposits and sources of mechanical power,
with a good climate, lots of land and, above all, a population which can work, if
there is an incentive.

It is still an undeveloped country, we are shown. It has industries, but hardly
any industrialization. Its factories are run at a loss, ambitious in design in some
cases, but inefficient, poorly managed. The country's transportation is backward, its
farming of the pre-Stone Age, except for a few exp^imental stations; the system of
taxation is archaic.

The raw material is there and the question is what to do with it. The authors
recommend a policy of gradual growth. Roads must be built, because the country
is stifled without them. Education and sanitation must be improved. The logical
development of industrialization is to begin with small and light industries, such as
foundries, machine shops, plants to produce simple farm tools, wagons and other
indispensable means of transportation. The productiveness of the mines could be
greatly improved. The heavy industries would follow logically in due time. Probably
for reasons of prestige, modem Turkey started with heavy industries.

The authors hold to the view that Turkey does not need too much outside
capital. There is money in the country, but much of it is in hiding. The govem-

206

COUNTRY WITHOUT ECONOMIC BACKBONE

ment could finance most, if not all, essential public activities. The greatest need
the Turks themselves cannot fill at present is for competent managers, technicians,
advisers, with plenty of industrial and commercial background. "This is a need
which Americans can supply, provided the opportunity is offered for them to exer-
cise their talents. Gk)vemment and private undertakings could engage Americans
: with the required skill."

These opportunities, however, will exist only if Turkish policy-makers change
their attitude, so that the national economy is not operated, as at present, for the
benefit of bureaucrats and politicians, but for the bulk of the producing and con-
suming population. Harassing taxes must be abolished, capricious rulings must be
eliminated, favoritism must be ended and the invasion of managerial responsibility
by the government must be avoided by all means.

Two of the authors of the book had personal contacts with the Near and Middle
East. Max Weston Thomburg, research director of this volume, is described as
chairman for many years of the Board of Engineers of the Standard Oil Company of
California, and Vice-President in charge of its Middle and Far East subsidiaries.
Mr. Graham Spry, the research associate, was personal assistant to Sir Stafford
Cripps during the war and his companion in his historic mission to India. Because
of Mr. Thomburg's close association with the petroleum industry, it seems to be
strange that he should have overlooked important recent oil developments in Turkey.

The Twentieth Century Fund is to be congratulated on this undertaking. Its
Executive Director, Evans Clark, tells the reader in a Foreword that this study on
Turkey and a similar one on Brazil have been designed as pilot projects for the
production of the intellectual raw material out of which a more effective United
States foreign policy may be fashioned. If that means that the Fund will undertake
to publish similar studies for several important foreign countries it will render a
great public service.

The Armenian Question in Paris in 1919*

Reviewed by C. P. Ives

Stephen Bonsai, Suitors and Suppliants, The Little Nations at Versailles. With
an Introduction by Arthur Krock. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1946. 301 p.

N Suitors and Suppliants Colonel Stephen Bonsai assigns the Biblical name of
"Naboth's vineyard" to the Ukraine of 1919. Actually his book is the story of
many Naboths, many covetous Ahabs, many Jezebels working wrongful conveyances.
For this is the account of the victimized small nations at Paris in 1918 and 1919,
and of their efforts there to secure that literal justice which the great American
President had pledged in the most explicit terminology.

^With the courtesy of The Baltimore Evening Sun.

207

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

As readers of his earlier book, Unfinished Business, will recall, Colonel Bonsai
was Colonel House's right hand man at Versailles. He kept the door to American
headquarters and in that key place had the delicate and strenuous work of sifting
all the suitors and their demands, of composing both pleas and pleaders for their
several appearances before what Bonsai calls the Great Assizes, the court of the
leaders of the great powers.

Like Wilson himself. Bonsai was devoted to the small peoples. This book, like
the earlier one, consists of transcripts from the diary he kept during those days and
the entries have the warmth and candor of informal writing. The good colonel felt
the force of pleas rooted in logic and historic fitness; but time and again, and much
more often than not, he saw, as well, how pitifully weak were the suitors and sup-
pliants in the practical weapons of power politics.

Here, for instance, at Paris in 1919, were the Slovaks, desperately led by
Father Hlinka, and fully as fearful of the Czechs as they were of the Germans,
their late enemy. Masaryk and Benes were in Paris and talked much of the future
of the new Czechoslovak Republic. Masaryk was worried about the German-Czechs
in the Sudeten mountains, but proposed to forbid their removal to Germany
proper. Benes thought it might be possible to secure their loyalty to the new state.

D'Annunzio was embarked on his crazy adventure into Fiume in those days, and
the raid was so popular with the Italian people that the Italian Prime Minister,
Orlando, was driven to extreme territorial demands at Paris. Clemenceau warned
that the Italians were indiscreet in inviting the enmity of the new kingdom of the
Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and saw an eventful explosion in that part of the world
whose major city then as now was Trieste,

Bonsai gives vivid pictures of Emir Feisal, Arab commander under AUenby,
making his demands for Arab emancipation at Paris and warning the western
nations against favor to the Zionists in Palestine. Much farther east, the troubles
of Korea were brought before the conference by a delegation which could not sup-
press its chagrin that Japan, arch aggressor and tyrant over their race, should have a
major and honored place at the peace table. Naturally the Chinese shared this
consternation.

Lord Milner, of the British delegation in 1918, thought that Germany, though
beaten, ought to be permitted to retain some armaments, just in case the Bol-
sheviks should attempt any general penetration westward into the European con-
tinent. Other Englishmen were eager to give Silesia to Germany so that that
industrial area would help balance the great industries in northern France.

As the diary proceeds. Bonsai's heat and his hopelessness rise by equal steps.
He comes to some kind of a climax in both when he reaches the unhappy story of
the Armenians. Their spokesman, at Paris in 1919, was Boghos Nubar Pasha. He
insisted on starting the Armenian chronicle with the Hittites of ancient Palestine,
from whom he insisted the Armenians derived. But the American colonel insisted
on some kind of a statute of limitations in this tragic account and was content to
begin with the year 1878. That was the date, he reminded the British Lord Bryce,
of the Treaty of Berlin, underwritten by the British, the French, the Russians, etc.,
in which the Armenians were promised an end of their long servitude to the Turk.

208

THE ARMENIAN QUESTION IN PARIS IN 1919

It was in this year, of course, that the Russians seized the province of Kars as part
of the booty of their recent victory over Turkey. In response to this move, the
British entered into a deal with Turkey against Russia.

Two years later, in 1880, the powers protested to the Turkish Sultan that he was
not abiding by the terms of the Berlin undertaking. Largely because of the Anglo-
Turkish deal, nothing happened. In 1894-1896 came the terrible Turkish massacres
of the Armenians. These events were cited twenty years later when, in 1916, Britain
and France promised freedom for the Armenians.

Despite this Anglo-French pledge, however, it was the United States which
the Supreme Council of Allies invited to assume a mandate over a liberated Armenia
in 1920. This was after the Treaty of Versailles, in terms rather vaguer than those
of 1878, had promoted the gist of the 1878 promise. In 1920 the Treaty of Sevres
included a similar pledge by the puppet Sultan of Turkey. But he was soon over-
turned and his pledges revoked by Mustafa Kemal and his Turkish revolution.
It was Kemal who got back all Turkish territory held in 1914, plus the province of
Kars, which Russia had seized in 1878. The Treaty of Lausanne (1923), says
Colonel Bonsai, "consecrated the Turkish triumph. . . ." And now the unhappy
Armenians and the province of Kars have once more come back in the news.

For this, of course, is what Colonel Bonsai is driving at — that our present
troubles in many instances stem back to troubles which were considered at Versailles,
but left unsettled. Again and again the author reports the easy gestures with which
the great powers dismissed the plaints of the small peoples in 1919 — that these
minor issues and tag-ends of the old disputes could be adjusted later via the ma-
chinery to be built at Versailles. The colonel's point is that this just didn't happen,
and that little pinpoints of unrest festered at length into great crises and dreadful
war.

Colonel Bonsai can hardly be called a killjoy, since there was little joy in the
world outlook even before his book appeared. But he does not make our present
difficulties any easier to bear though he does make many of them easier to under-
stand.

209

Letters to the Editor

Congratulatory Notes

Editor Armenian Affairs'.

Congratulations on the fine first issue of Armenian Affairs. It is an excellent
piece of work and I shall be very glad to arrange an exchange with The Journal of
Bible and Religion.

— ^Garl E. Purinton
Editor The Journal of Bible and Religion
Organ of the National Association of Biblical Instructors

Editor Armenian Affairs:

Judging by these examples [in the first issue of the journal] I feel confident that
you are launching Armenian Affairs under very auspicious beginnings. These
articles make excellent and valuable reading.

— Abraham A. Neuman
President
Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning

Editor Armenian Affairs:

"Excellent."

— ^Reinhold Niebuhr
Professor Union Theological Seminary

Editor Armenian Affairs:

Publications such as yours bring prestige to the Armenian name.

— P. K. Thomajan
Author, Carlstadt, N. J.

Editor Aimeriian Affairs:

The magazine is made up in the grand manner, good paper, good type, good
reproductions. All the articles I have read have a high standard. The beginning
seems to be good and I hope the sequel will be no less satisfactory.

— Emil Lenoyel
Associate Professor of Education, New York University

Editor Armenian Affairs:

I note with satisfaction that the next number will contain considerable ma-
terial on archeological work. I was particularly interested in the review of Mr.
Tokarsky's book, The Architecture of Ancient Armenia, in the first issue.

— Eric King
Archeologist, London, England

210

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Editor Armenian Affairs :

We enjoyed reading every article in tiie first issue and trust that you will
continue this worthwhile publication and be able to maintain the high standard
of its scholarly contents.

— ^Zareh Tatarian

San Francisco, Calif.

Editor Armenian Affairs :

Read the first issue of Armenian Affairs with great interest and satisfaction.
There is a definite need for this type of publication at present. The Armenian
National Council is to be congratulated for its manifold and extremely valuable
services to our cause which require so much heart and mind in these difficult times.

— Ephraim K. JernaziaNj Pastor,
Armenian Euphrates Evangelical Church, Providence, R. I.

Million Armenian Martyrs Articulate

Editor Armenian Affairs:

Please enter nine subscriptions to Armenian Affairs on my account, one for
myself, and eight as follows: two for two Senators, four for four Congressmen of
the United States Congress; one for the University of Mississippi Library; and two
for the editors of two leading newspapers of the capital city of my state.

Words cannot express my delight in your publication. It is the finest and
the best yet seen in the field of magazine publication in behalf of Armenia. It is
worthy to be on the desk of every editor of any major newspaper in America, in
the hands of every senator and congressman in the United States, and on the
shelves of the libraries of all the great universities.

It seems to me, more than a million Armenian martyrs have at last become
articulate. This publication is their voice speaking to the conscience of humanity
kept silent for a long time by power, diplomacy and duplicity.

— ^JOHN G. MOSKOFFIAN

Formerly Instructor in the University of Maine

It May Move the Stony Hearts

Editor Armenian Affairs:

I read the first issue of your new periodical with a thrill. I am certain that
Armenian Affairs will become an enduring monument for the defense of the Ar-
menian cause. Who knows, it may move the stony hearts of those on whose sense
of justice our cause depends. In addition to that, Armenian Affairs will become an
effective instrument in conveying to our youth the spiritual values of our people for
the conservation of which our fathers preferred martyrdom.

— Garabed Kalfayan, Pastor,
Armenian Church, Yettem, Calif.

211

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Hopeful Days Ahead

Editor Armenian Affairs:

While praising your worthy attempt at creating such a publication, the real
benefit of it is doubtful as past similar experiences testify. We had had similar pub-
lications during the last fifty years, both in the English and French languages, and
yet look at our national condition which became worse and worse, not to say pitiable,
due to the treachery of civilized (?) diplomacy. I subscribe to it in the hope that
the next fifty years of the twentieth century may give us a little consolation.

Just a little advice: Please leave out the religious stuff. The average Deader is
tired of reading that we were the first nation to adopt Christianity; that our Bible
is the "queen of translations"; that we have been persecuted for our belief, and
the like. Fifty years ago there was some excuse for such statements when they
appeared at length in the Pro Armenia in France, in The New Armenia in America,
and numerous other publications. The most we can expect in answer from the
great diplomats of our day would be "so what?" Yes, so what? We are all Christians
but the national interests of all governments today are above Christianity.^

— ^DiKRAN Spear

Weehawken, N. J.

250,000 Armenians in Turkish Occupied Armenia?

Editor Armenian Affairs:

I would like to suggest that the Armenian National Council offer copies of its
journal to British institutions and journals of high standing, such as the Royal
Institute's International Affairs, for exchange with their publications.^

On page 263 of Pearse's Three Years in the Levant, reviewed in the last issue
of your journal, the author states, "There are still 250,000 in Turkish Armenia,
whose capital is Erzeroum." This is, of course, an impossible figure for the number
of Armenians in Turkish Occupied Armenia, but it might be useful to know where
this figure was obtained.

— ^Edward V. Gulbenkian
London, England

iQr shouldn't we say "sub-Christian" ? — Ed.

2Mr. Gulbenkian has already placed Armenian Affairs in several of the most important
libraries and educational institutions in Britain. — Ed.

212

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

^^Armenia to the Armenians^^

Editor Armenian Aj fairs'.

Writing in The Nation of August 7, 1948 on "The Wallace Party," Howard K.
Smith had this to say about some of the slogans on the walls at the Progressive Party's
Convention: "Scanning the forest of posters in the hall, the eye jarred against exotic
slogans like, 'Armenia to the Armenians' ; it was impossible not to wonder how many
Middle-Western pulses would rise to correct this manifest injustice in November."

I have no idea how many Armenians or others in this country voted the Wallace
ticket in order to secure justice for the Armenians. But an intelligent public should
know something of the historic background of this "exotic" slogan.

Armenia is a small mountainous country in the Caucasus, on the slopes of Mt.
Ararat. Overrun in the twelfth century by Turkish invaders from central Asia, the
country has suffered misrule and persecution at the hand of its Turkish conquerors
ever since; but like the Greeks, the Irish, the Jews, under similar circumstances, the
Armenians have never relinquished their culture and their hope of freedom.

In 1878, one-fifth of the ancient Armenian homeland (excluding Cilicia, where
an Armenian kingdom flourished for about two centuries at the time of the Cru-
sades) was taken from the Turk by Russia; but the bulk of the country, as well as
Cilicia, has remained under Turkish rule. And, notorious as was Tsarist mis-
government, the lot of the Armenian in Russian Armenia was very much better
than that of the Armenians in Turkey.

During World War I the Turks sought to settle the Armenian question by
exterminating the Armenian population of their country. It is estimated that during
and after 1915 nearly a million Armenians were done to death, while another million
were exiled or fled to countries in the Near East, the Balkans, France, and the
Americas. The lot of the Armenian refugees in these countries has, in various degrees,
been miserable — "D.P.'s" for over thirty years, while the few who remain in Turkey
lead a barely tolerable existence.

One of Wilson's "Fourteen Points" for the settlement of World War I was the
independence of Armenia; and in 1919 the European Allies (the U. S. had not
declared war against Turkey) asked Wilson to draw the boundaries of the free
Armenia that was to be set up in the eastern provinces of Asia Minor, and the
recognition of Armenia's independence was included in the Treaty of Sevres, which
the delegates of the Ottoman Empire signed. But the nationalist movement under
Mustafa Kemal deposed the Sultan, proclaimed a "republic," and repudiated the
treaty. In 1923 a new treaty was signed at Lausanne in which the question of
Armenia's independence was ignored. Once again the Armenians were betrayed
by the Christian democracies of Europe and left to their fate by America, whose
missionaries had taught them to admire and love what the America of Washing-
ton and Lincoln stood for.

Between the two world wars the question of Armenia's liberation from the Turk
remained quiescent. But with the close of World War II a group of Americans of
Armenian ancestry, with the cooperation of a large number of other Americans,

213

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

raised the question of the implementation of the "Wilson Award." This is what
the slogan, "Armenia to the Armenians," means. Many still recall the massacres of
Armenians in 1895-96, in 1908, and in 1915, which aroused the horror and sympathy
of the western world, and especially of this country, since we had established mis-
sions in Turkey several generations earlier and were intimately acquainted with the
deplorable conditions in that country from the testimony of American eye-witnesses.
To these, and to the Americans of Armenian ancestry, the slogan, "Armenia to the
Armenians," does not sound exotic. For the Armenian refugees dispersed through-
out the Near East as well as Armenians remaining In Turkey are still suffering pov-
erty and the indignities heaped on minorities in those countries. And while most
of the Armenians in America have probably no more intention of returning to Ar-
menia, should it be liberated, than Irish- Americans had of returning to Ireland
when that country secured its independence, or American Jews to Israel (for their
land would not have room for all of their scattered brethren throughout the world),
American-Armenians are nevertheless greatly interested in the fate of their less
fortunate fellows in the Near East and are, therefore, once more raising the question
of the implementation of the "Wilson Award."

Armenian Affairs should prove of great value in bringing before Americans, of
whatever race or national origin, the history and significance of the Armenian Ques-
tion, so that it may no longer seem "exotic" to any of us. The independence of
Armenia was not "exotic" to Wilson. Nor should it seem exotic to intelligent Amer-
icans at least.

— ^Lawson p. Chambers
Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.

214

Documents

Concerning Genocide

In favor of the Ratification of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide. Presented to The Subcommittee on the Genocide Con-
vention of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Submitted by The Reverend
Charles A. Vertanes, Executive Director, March 8, 1950.*

Editorial Note

This document was presented to the Sub-Committee on March 3, 1950. On
June 14 a gentleman who claimed to be the architect of the Genocide Convention
got in touch with the office of the Armenian National Council of America seeking
support for the ratification of the Convention by Congress. A three hour interview
ensued the following day with the Director of the Council. It was discouraging to
learn that this gentleman was willing to accept support for his project from any
source, preferably reactionary groups, including those who had worked with the
Nazis during World War II.

In the June issue of "Hairenik," official daily organ of the Armenian Revolu-
tionary Federation (Dashnag), a brief letter, signed by one of the leaders of the
Federation, addressed to U. S. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., urged him to
support the ratification of the Convention in the Senate. It was mentioned in the
paper that this was one of the appeals sent.

The letter stated that the writer's family was one of the victims of genocide:
"During the first World War I lost my father, my mother, four of my brothers, my
grandmother, three of my uncles with their entire families, one aunt with her entire
family: all the result of merciless mass murder. Aside from my sister and myself . . .
out of our patriarchal family of more than fifty members, all were destroyed as a
result of the massacres. If it had not been for this barbarous practice known as
genocide, the greater part of my family except those who would have died a natural
death, would have been alive today. What happened to me happened also to many
thousands of other Armenian families."

In the entire letter of four solid paragraphs there is not one single reference as
to who were the perpetrators of this violence to the Armenians. This is a new kind
of fight for "decency" in the world. It is not enough to talk about Turkish atrocities
for Armenian consumption, as "Hairenik" did editorially a few days earlier. The
truth must be proclaimed in season and out of season, everywhere, unstintingly,
courageously.

The Armenian National Council of America, the American Church Committee
for Armenia and other organizations, both Armenian and American, devoted to the
pursuit of justice and peace, will be no party to such worthless campaigns.

If the Genocide Convention is to be ratified with tongue in cheek it will be a
worthless scrap of paper. No sound world can be built on falsehood or suppressed
truth.

•Published in The Genocide Convention — Hearings Before the Sub-Committee on Foreign
Relations, United States Senate Eighty-first Congress, Second Session on Executive O. The
International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Jan-
uary 23, 24, 25 and February 9, 1950. Printed for the use of the Committee on Foreign
Relations, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C, 1950, pp. 548-555.

215

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Honorable Gentlemen:

The Armenian National Council of America urges the ratification of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.

The Armenian National Council was organized in March, 1944 under the auspicious
circumstances of the later stages of World War II. Among these the most hopeful
were the reassuring declarations of leading Allied statesmen concerning the rights of
oppressed peoples and the future of smaller nations.

The Council consists of twenty-five organizations which are national in scope among
Americans of Armenian origin. As such it represents — through direct representation in
the case of these organizations, and tacit approval of its aims in the case of others —
the overwhelming majority of Americans of Armenian background.

The Council seeks the interests of the Armenian people who have survived the
Turkish massacres, deportations and other measures directed at their destruction as
an ethnic, religious and cultural group. These people have been living as refugee? for
thirty or more years in the Near East, the Balkans, western Europe, in India, the Far
East, the Americas, and in the Soviet Union,

The Council hopes to realize its objectives through the implementation of the ideals
of justice, freedom, security, and the right of self determination of peoples. It pursues
these ends through the action of national and international organs of peace.

The Council is, therefore, interested in the creation, development, and strengthen-
ing of national and international organs projected for the settlement of social and
political problems through legal and judicial means.

Americans of Armenian background feel they have a special responsibility to speak
on the ratification of the genocide convention. Armenians were the first victims of
the practice of genocide in modern times. In addition, their losses within less than
thirty years (1894 to 1922) totalled two million lives, billions in property, and the
annihilation of a culture in the Armenian provinces in Turkey which went back to
several thousand years.

When one considers that out of an Armenian population of more than two and a
half million in 1882 in Turkey and Turkish Armenia there are left today only eighty
thousand; that out of a territory of 136,289 square miles constituting the Armenian
homeland only 11,580 is included in the Armenian Soviet Republic, while the rest
remains in Turkey, mostly depopulated and in a state of ruin; and that Armenian
culture has been one of the most fruitful in history that has survived to our age: one real-
izes the appalling magnitude and depth of the Armenian tragedy.

There are many Armenians in the United States today as in other countries where
they have found refuge, who have not a single surviving relative in the whole world —
no parents, no brothers or sisters, no uncles, or cousins, or nephews, or nieces — not even
on the secondary or more distant levels. They are completely devoid of any family
ties, save what relations they have been able to establish with in-laws through marriage.
As such their experience represents only one of many aspects of the emptiness which
has entered the life of Armenians who have survived the massacres of World War I.

The Turkish massacres, deportations, and other types of persecution, such as the
Imposition of the arbitrary tax on wealth, known as "Varlik Vergisi," which was de-
vised during World War II in order to destroy not only the Armenian, but also the
Greek and Jewish minorities in Turkey, constitute a clear cut case of genocide, a
planned move to destroy religious and ethnic groups. The Turks tried to represent
these deeds, though futilely, as action against enemies in war or rebels against the
government. The elimination of the Armenians was resolved on as a step toward
realizing a pan-Turanian empire across central Asia. The Turks, who represent them-
selves as a kind of Asiatic "Herrenvolk," set out deliberately to wipe out as a "lesser
breed without the law" their non-Turkish subjects, who were incontestably their superiors
morally, socially and culturally.

The Turks are clearly guilty of four out of the five acts enumerated by the Con-
vention, the commission of which is defined as constituting genocide. These acts are:
first, killing members of the group; second, causing them serious bodily or mental
harm; third, deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about their
physical destruction; fourth, taking measures to prevent births within the group; and
fifth, forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. It was only the
fourth of these acts which the Turks did not engage in, in the sense in which the Nazis
did, but this was due to their lack of adequate scientific knowledge. They are, however,
guilty even of this crime in a general way, since by impressing Armenian women into
Turkish homes and harems they prevented them from bearing Armenian children. The

216

CONCERNING GENOCIDE

unqualified destruction of the men and the frequent sparing of young girls and women
of child-bearing age under such circumstances cannot be interpreted otherwise.

With such a background as this Americans of Armenian origin are impelled by
blood and conscience, and all that America has taught them in regard to justice,
democracy, decency and human rights to urge the ratification of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide.

II
The argument that the Convention is not an effective instrument for the preven-
tion and punishment of genocide is not true. This question was raised even enuring
the debate before the Sixth (Legal) Committee working for the Convention. The
crime, it was there pointed out, is usually committed by a state and, therefore, it per-
mitted no punishment short of war. This is not quite the case, however. While it may
be true that a state cannot be punished except by war, actually it is individual rulers
who are responsible for the crime. And men do not remain rulers forever. It is as in-
dividuals that they are guilty, and it is the Convention which would become their
nemesis in the event of a change of government, or in the event that they left their
country. The fact that charges could be preferred would act as a strong deterrent.

An incontrovertible evidence of this is what Hitler did and said in 1939, just before
the invasion of Poland, when he sent to the East his Death's Head units, with the
order to "kill without pity or mercy, old men, women and children of the Polish race
and language," because, he explained, "only in such a way will we win the vital space
we need." He felt sure at the time he would not be called personally accountable for
this heinous order, for, he argued, "who still talks nowadays of the extermination of the
Armenians?" When informed of the threat of the Allies concerning the personal re-
sponsibility of public criminals, he put the question cynically, "What Allies? The same
that threatened against the Turks?"

Hitler was right. The Turks who had plotted the Armenian genocide were not per-
sonally called to account for their monstrous deeds, a failure for which the world paid
very dearly.

On June 23, 1915, the Allies, in the most terrible days of the deportations and mas-
sacres in Turkey and Armenia, declared to the v/orld that they would hold personally
responsible and punish as common criminals the authors of these atrocities. The covenant
of the League of Nations later reaffirmed the principles of human rights, freedom and
justice, on which such punishment was predicated. And so during the first days of the
Armistice the Allies arrested the authors of this hitherto unparalleled crime of modern
times. Eighty-two of the chief accomplices of the Ittihad party were exiled to the island
of Malta.

There was a lack of sincerity in the whole procedure from the very beginning evident
to the keen observer, however. When therefore the United States turned down the
proposal for a mandate over Armenia, the occasion was used as a ruse to hide the
ambitions and intrigues of the Allies among themselves in their effort to be the chief
beneficiaries of the spoils of the war, and the criminals were freed without trial and
punishment so that they could go back and organize a new Turkey out of the ruins of
the war. It is not surprising that the Turks themselves were astonished at this manifesta-
tion of a cynicism, more brazen than any of which they had been accused. They were
quick, however, to exploit to the hilt this moral faux pas of the Allies. In fact they were
very much helped in this by the Allies themselves, as each vied with the other to curry
the favor of the prostrate foe.

The unpunished criminals set at large and those who scurried out of hiding, as
well as other less conspicuous offenders, did not lose time in getting together and re-
viving the old spirit under new names. Many of the old institutions were streamlined
to correspond to the political forms of the west. Under the "protective" guns of British
battleships anchored in Constantinople they adopted the National Covenant by which
they relmquished or acquiesced to the loss of Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia to the
British and French, their "liberators," but vowed to regain and remain in possession by
force of arms the remaining territories, which meant nothing else but the major portion
of Armenia and all of Greek Anatolia and Kurdistan.

_ Among the criminals who played an important part in the subsequent post-war
betrayal of Armenia was Ismet Pasha, now known as Ismet Inonu, since 1938 the presi-
dent of the "new" Turkey. Ismet Bey, as he was earlier called was a member of the
ruling Ittihad party, and as captain of the ofiicial staff of the second division of the
Turkish Army had taken part in the Congress of Edirne of 1914. which made the
fateful decision concerning the extermination of the Armenian people. It was later as

217

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Ismet Pasha that he scuttled the Armenian question at the Lausanne Conference in
the early 'twenties; and still later as Ismet Inonu that he had the remains of Talaat
Pasha, Turkish premier in World War I and one of the two men most responsible for
the Armenian massacres, brought back to Turkey from Germany in state. Talaat, who
had been officially recognized by a German Court at the end of World War I as a
public criminal, at the trial of his assassin who was set free without prejudice, was form-
ally declared a hero of the "new" Turkey by this president of the Turkish Republic.

Others who took part in the Congress of Edirne were Teoof Bey and Fethi Bey, both
of whom served as prime ministers under the new Kemalist regime; Yousuf Kemal Bev,
Bekir Sami Bey, and Tushdi Aras Bey, all of whom served as ministers for foreign
affairs under Kemal; and men like Saracoglu and Menemencioglu, whose terroristic
activities against the Armenians have been characterized as surpassing anything to be
found in the annals of Jengiz Khan and the invading Mongols.

It was under these men led by Mustafa Kemal that, between the Armistice of
Mudros, October 30, 1918, and the Treaty of Lausanne, July 23, 1923, another one hundred
thousand Armenians were slain in the Caucasus, western Anatolia, Syria and Cilicia.

These men also tried to dispose of the large minority of Greeks in Anatolia through
massacre, deportation, and population exchange. Several years later the deadly wrath
of these men was poured on the Kurds, their co-religionists, at which time, according
to some authorities, as many as one million perished. This number may include the
destruction of the Christian Ass3Tians and of other smaller minority groups in eastern
Anatolia. Meanwhile the Turkish policy of genocide has continued to date in the form
of what 'may be referred to as a white massacre, an enforced assimilation of all the
remaining minorities in Turkey. The result is that Turkey today, according to a public
declaration of one of its officials, has the smallest "minorities" population in all of
Europe.

Obviously the Turkish crime of genocide against the Armenians inflicted a serious
blow to world civilization, economically, politically, culturally and spiritually, because
of the unsteady conscience and irresolute will of men and nations during the years
which followed the first World War, who vascillated endlessly between the desire to
implement law and order in international relations, on the one hand, and the urge to
pursue imperialist interests through power politics, on the other hand.

•^iJ^i'Jl*^ history be allowed to repeat itself by a second less justifiable failure to
punish the criminals of past genocides and to establish the necessary instruments that
may prevent the commission of the same crime against other peoples in the future?
ine ratification of the Convention by the United States will go far In strengthening
me lorces which are attempting to deal with this problem effectively.

The holocaust of the second World War once more awakened the conscience of
organized society and set the stage for the further development of an international legal
and judicial morality. All who took part in the struggle against the Axis promised that
war criminals who violated generally accepted international law and committed crimes
against civilian populations would meet stern punishment.

As early as 1943 the heads of the governments of the United States, the Soviet Union
and Great Britain proclaimed in their declaration that those guilty of such crimes
would be hunted to the ends of the earth and brought to justice.

When the United Nations was first organized at San Francisco in 1945, it incor-
porated in its Charter the provisions making respect for personality and protection of
human rights, irrespective of race, language, religion or sex, a special province of tlie
new organization, and provided for the creation of the Commission on Human Rights.

On October 1, 1946, with the sentences handed down in Nuremberg the interna-
tional community took action for the first time in history to punish men who had
committed "crimes against humanity," thus recognizing that such crimes were of inter-
national concern.

The United States also recognized the event as of epochal significance, when its
official representative, Mr. Justice Jackson declared that the Nuremberg trials found
this country and her allies "at one of those rare moments when the thought and in-
stitutions and habits of the world have been shaken by the impact of world war on the
habits of countless millions. Such occasions rarely come and quickly pass. We are put
under a heavy responsibility to see that our behavior during this unsettled period will
direct the world's thought toward a firmer enforcement of the laws, of international

218

CONCERNING GENOCIDE

conduct, so as to make war less attractive to those who have governments and the
destinies of the peoples in their power."

Shortly after the Nuremberg sentences the United Nations took a distinct official
step with respect to genocide. On December 11, 1946, the General Assembly adopted a
resolution declaring that the "denial of the right of existence of entire human groups
shocks the conscience of mankind . . . and is contrary to moral law and the spirit and
aims of the United Nations;" and that the "punishment of the crime of genocide is a
matter of international concern." Genocide, it held, "is a crime under international
law which the civilized world condemns, and for the commission of which principals
and accomplices — whether private individuals, public officials, or statesmen, and whether
the crime is committed on religious, racial, political or any other grounds — are punish-
able." The resolution further recommended international cooperation to facilitate the
prevention of genocide and punishments for its perpetrators, assigning to the Economic
and Social Council the task of drawing up a draft agreement on the subject.

The terms of this resolution were embodied in the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of Genocide which, as Your Honors know, was passed by the General
Assembly on December 9, 1948 by a vote of 55 to with no abstentions. As such the
Genocide Convention represents the consensus of the international community.

The Convention on Gencoide is one of the first efforts of the international com-
munity to develop principles set forth during the Nuremberg proceedings as a perma-
nent part of the law of nations; with this difference that whereas the decisions made
at the Nuremberg trials refer only to war-time acts, the convention extends genocide
as a crime in peacetime, and thus places on a more universal foundation the interna-
tional structures against mass murder against national, ethnic and religious groups.

Such being the case, the ratification of the Convention would enhance the moral
leadership of the United States in international relations. It has already been so argued
before this sub-committee on January 23 of this year by Deputy Undersecretary of State
Rusk, who argued on behalf of the State Department the ratification already endorsed
by President Truman. "The Senate of the United States," he said, "by giving its advice
and consent to the ratification of the Convention, will demonstrate to the rest of the
world that the United States is determined to maintain its moral leadership in interna-
tional affairs and to participate in the development of international law on the basis
of human justice."

We have already discussed the question of the effectiveness of the Convention from
the negative standpoint of the serious consequences in the absence of such an inter-
national instrument. Since one of the major attacks on the Convention has been the
argument that it is not an effective instrument for the prevention and punishment of
genocide, may we direct your attention to those specific measures in it which discredit
that argument.

The Convention as it stands today will be a deterrent to would-be criminals of
genocide, since it attempts to provide for the punishment of those who would violate
this most basic of human rights, namely, the right of peoples to live.

The Convention makes it clear that persons committing any of the acts which go
under the official definition of genocide will be punished "whether they are constitu-
tionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals," and that they will be
tried by some competent tribunal of the territory in which the act was committed, or
alternatively by an international penal tribunal. By specifying that genocide is an
extraditable offense, the convention guarantees that no criminal committing genocide
will be able to obtain asylum in any country of the signatories.

Henceforth it will not be possible for people guilty of the crime of genocide to be
at large, without the apprehension that the organized will and judicial machinery of
international society has condemned them as public criminals subject to punishment
in due time.

The Convention binds the contracting states to pass the necessary legislation to give
effect to its provisions, especially to provide effective penalties. It obligates these states
to try persons charged with offences in their competent national court. Furthermore
the states agree that the acts listed shall not be considered political crimes, and pledge
to grant extradition in accordance with their laws and treaties.

In addition to such national action, the Convention also envisages trial by an.
International penal tribunal should one be set up and should the contracting parties

219

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

accept its jurisdiction. Furthermore it provides that any of the contracting parties may
bring a charge of genocide, or of the other acts, before the competent organs of the
United Nations and ask for appropriate action according to the Charter.

If there is any dispute between one country and another on the interpretation,
application, or fulfillment of the Convention the dispute must be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to the dispute.

Many UN delegations have been ready and eager to implement those provisions
of the Convention that relate to international jurisdiction at an early date. Wahid
Fikry Raafat of Egypt, in his comments on the occasion of the passage of the Conven-
tion, referred to this clearly when he said: "We continue to fesl with a number of other
delegates that, in order that punishment of genocide may be effected, it is necessary
for the most dangerous culprit to be convinced beforehand that, even if he could escape
the judgment of a national court, he cannot escape the judgment of an international
tribunal which will be impartial."

While the Convention will be binding only upon those states which have accepted it,
nevertheless by establishing an international standard and by recognizing the principle
of international responsibility, its jurisdiction may ultimately extend beyond that of the
nations which ratified it.

The ratification of the Convention by all governments and the eventual development
of an international judiciary to deal effectively with the practice of genocide will also
remove the possibility of the political exploitation of this crime by individual states or
a special grouping of states to serve their nationalistic or imperialistic interests, at the
expense of the ultimate breakdown of international law and the peace of the world.

Dr. Herbert V. Evatt, the president of the UN General Assembly at which the
convention outlawing genocide was adopted, told the Assembly that while endeavors
occasionally had been made in past centuries "to preserve human groups from destruc-
tion through so-called humanitarian interventions undertaken by one nation acting
usually alone," these took the form of diplomatic action, which frequently opened the
governments who undertook the interventions to charges "of pursuing other than
humanitarian aims." "Today," he added, "we are establishing international collective
safeguards for the very existence of such human groups. Whoever will act in the name
of the United Nations will do it on behalf of universal conscience as embodied in this
great organization. The intervention of the United Nations and other organs which
will have to supervise application of the Genocide Convetion will be made according
to international law and not according to unilateral political considerations. In this
field, which relates to the sacred right of existence of human groups, we are proclaiming
today the supremacy of international law once and, I hope, forever."

Another serious opposition to the ratification of the Convention by the United
States has risen from lawyers who are fearful that the treaty would invade the rights
of individual states of the United States and may open the way to international jursidic-
tion over the United States. We maintain that contrary to this apprehension the in-
terests of the United States both at home and abroad will not be jeopardized but actually
enhanced.

It seems hard to believe i that any document with such highly laudable purposes
should encounter any opposition in a country like the United States, where there have
never been any incidents of genocide (excepting perhaps in the cases of the American
Indian and of some of the worst abuses of the slaves before the Civil War). The
misgivings have come from no less a body than the American Bar Association. Oddly
enough, members of the Bar Association seem in their objections to have very little
confidence in the judicial and political system of which they are such important main-
stays. They insist that the imperfection they find in the treaty can be dealt with only
by revisions or Senatorial reservations (which would, in the eyes of the world, weaken
the United States' position regarding genocide), and seem unable to recognize that the
diflBculties they foresee can be resolved (if, indeed, they ever arise) equally well by the
Congress and courts of the United States.

IThis and the following paragraphs in this section are taken from a study of Dr. Richard N.
Swift, Instructor in Government and Assistant to the Director of the Graduate Program of
Studies in the United Nations and World Affairs, at New York University. Dr. Swift is also
Liaison Officer of New York University to the UN. The study appeared in The Standard,
organ of the American Ethical Union, February 1950, pp. 208-215, and is entitled "The
International Murder Case."

220

CONCERNING GENOCIDE

The Association, for instance, would, insist on a reservation making it specific that
"killing members of a group" applied to the killing of thousands of people and not just a
few. Here the Association would appear to be more guilty than the United Nations
of the poor draftsmanship they imply exists, because obviously more important than the
numbers involved in genocide is the "intent to destroy." It is perfectly possible that
997 persons might be victims of the crime, and it seems unduly cruel to bar them the
protection of the law because three few were killed. The lawyers wish to assure them-
selves, of course, that the execution by due process of law of a few people would not
be termed genocide just because they were incidentally all members of one group, but
certainly this involves a question of fact which any court is qualified to determine.

Similarly there was objection to the use of the phrase "mental harm" in Article
II because it might open the way to unnecessary litigation based on evidence of psycho-
logical injuries rather than mental harm arising from the use of narcotic drugs. Here
again, it seems diflScult to understand why the courts are not competent to interpret
this Article. It is, in fact, clear from the context of the debates on the phraseology,
that it is to the use of narcotic drugs (as they were employed, for instance, by the
Japanese in China) that these words pertain. In interpreting this Article, any court
would seek out the intent of the United Nations, just as the Supreme Court, in interpret-
ing American law, seeks out the intent of Congress.

The Association felt that prohibitions against direct and public incitement to commit
genocide would be without force in the United States. On the contrary, if the United
States ratified the treaty, it would become the supreme law of the land according to
our Constitution, and as such, these prohibitions would apply here. What is more, it
seems clear that this clause would be interpreted like other limitations upon freedom
of speech, for instance by the "clear and present danger" test set forth In Schenk v.
United States. The Association also asked for a definition of "complicity" in genocide,
a task which might equally well be left to future judicial determination.

More serious than these legal quibbles was a request by the Association that the
Senate specifically state that the operative Articles of the Covenant are not self-
executing in the United States, because their entrance into force would depend upon
action in the field of civil rights by the individual American states. If this were a
thoroughly established constitutional principle in this country, it would seem unneces-
sary to state it in a reservation, but actually, the United States can make treaties in
areas usually thought to be within the province of the states if the subject matter of
the treaty has attained sufficiently an international aspect. The Bar Association's
request would seem, therefore, to be directed at securing a political judgment in this
case which would negate the effect of the Convention. Southern Senators might well
insist on such a reservation on general principles, inasmuch as they are reluctant for
obvious reasons to see further inroads made by the federal government in the civil
rights domain. That like motivations are behind the Association's recommendation
seems obvious from other "objections" to the Convention raised in the course of dis-
cussion — objections that the Convention would end by removing from the states all
jurisdiction over civil rights; that each death in a race riot would become an inter-
national crime; and that the United States might find itself having to protect minorities
everywhere if it ratified this Convention.

Actually, all of these statements are either untrue or irrelevant. The relation be-
tween the states and the federal government in the field of civil rights has been con-
stantly changing, and it will be up to the Supreme Court when specific cases arising
under the Covenant are brought before it, to decide what effect the Convention will
have. No death in a race riot would be an international crime (although perhaps it
should be) unless it was part of a deliberate attempt to destroy the race. Furthermore,
the United States will find its relations to foreign minorities uneffected by this treaty.
If the treatment of minorities becomes a matter of concern to the General Assembly,
it becomes automatically a matter of concern to the United States in any case, whether
we have ratified the treaty or not, and in fact, we have already concerned ourselves
with the treatment of minorities in certain Balkan countries.

Because of the objections it raised, the Bar Association urges the U. S. not to
ratify the Convention until the Constitutional questions involved have been resolved,
No one except the Supreme Court can resolve these questions, however, and the Court
cannot act until cases are brought before it under the Convention. No ratification,
therefore no cases; so waiting to ratify until th constitutional questions are resolvved
is equivalent to waiting an indeterminate length of time for an impossible event.
Actually, it Is more sound to ratify and leave it to the courts and Congress to harmonize
the meaning of the treaty with our domestic laws, if, as, and when any cases do arise.

221

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

Beneath the surface of the objections raised against the Convention seem to be fears
that the agencies of international organization might some day hand down a decision
which certain portions of opinion in the United States would oppose. As a matter of
fact, in the case of this Convention that is most unlikely. Many of the h37pothetical
cases cited by the treaty's opponents are false issues or are based on misconceptions
of the international law involved, and there is no likelihood that the United States will
ever find itself embarrassed because of having ratified.

The critics of the Convention, however, are either unaware of or indifferent towards
an important ethical issue involved in their position. This is the question of the kind
of morality involved in the implicit assumpton that in specific cases the international
community must constantly agree with American conceptions of what is just. Nowhere
is there an admission that the United States might ever be mistaken; nowhere any
indication of a willingness to submit to any judicial procedures where we are not In
complete command; nowhere, certainly, (and unfortunately), any glimmer of a realiza-
tion that if we are ever to have world peace, we should without a dpubt be prepared
to submit to international legal procedures established and agreed to in advance
without knowing what the outcome in specific instances will be; and nowhere any idea
that we should be willing to change our laws, if necessary, to harmonize with the will
of the international community.

To accept such a point of view may perhaps require more ethical growth in the
United States, but this development is certainly not a prerequisite for ratification of
the Convention on Genocide. It should be enough to realize that ratification would
put the United States squarely on the side of those interested in increasing the stature
of international law in the community of nations by making it apply to crimes that are
truly international and to individuals and governments (who can be tried) and not
merely to nation-states (which are impersonal legal fictions). As democratic leaders in
the world, we have the greatest responsibility to ratify the Convention. It was the
United States which at Nuremberg placed itself wholly in favor of the development of
international law by these methods, and it behooves us now, both in our own interest,
and in the interest of the community of nations, not to reverse ourselves.

Reservations can only complicate the understanding of other nations with regard
to our position on this issue and the international legal situation with regard to genocide.
Since our normal constitutional procedures are adequate to deal with the questions
raised by the opponents of the Convention, it seems sheer folly to equivocate about our
firm opposition to organized mass murder.

The ratification of the Covenant by the United States and other countries would
strengthen the forces which make for law and order in human relations, both on the
intra-national and international levels. As Mr. M. K. V. K. Sundaram of India has
pointed out: "A convention of this character would be an effective instrument only to
the extent that there is real and wholehearted support from a large number of sovereign
states. It would be an easy task to draw up an ideal convention on paper, completely
acceptable from one point of view, but such a convention would be worthless if it did
not commend itself to many states."

The question of whether or not to ratify the Convention is not one of making just
a decision on another treaty, but one of commitment on the more vital question
whether man is willing and capable to develop international law by legislative tech-
niques. A positive yes will strengthen the United States and the cause of international
government in the years ahead, for methods used in developing international law in
relation to genocide later undoubtedly will be applied to other fields. A negative answer
win leave no alternative but further submission to the vicious cycle of destructive wars.
It will add to those subversive forces in the world which would stifie the enlightened
moral conscience of humanity.

Armenians, one of the peoples hardest hit from the failure to fulfill the principles
of human rights, justice and freedom enunciated by the Allied diplomats during the
first World War, know what it will mean to the world if more drastic action is not taken
in the present post-war era than was the case in the 'twenties and 'thirties to check
the murderous inclinations of those who may launch genocide against other peoples
in the future.

It is the earnest desire of the Armenian National Council of America that the United
States, wtih its traditional regard for law and human rights, should promptly ratify
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide.

222

Bibliography

JjEGINNING with this issue of Armenian Affairs an attempt will be made to pub-
lish in these pages inclusive bibliographies on various subjects in the Armenian field.
The bibliography which appeared in the last issue consisted mainly of annotated
references to current books and articles. Only those references will be included in the
new lists for which it has been possible to obtain adequate bibliographical informa-
tion by the time of publication.

The new lists will be taken from an extensive manuscript collection on which
the editor of this journal has been working for years. That work was recently aug-
mented by an additional collection of references (constituting about one-fifth of the
entire collection) contributed by Miss Nouvart Tashjian, Chief of the Catalogue
Department of Washington Square College, New York University, for which grate-
ful acknowledgment is made here. The additional material consists mainly of refer-
ences to older works.

The combined collection is undoubtedly the most extensive, accurate, and
"precisely" classified reference work of its kind outside of Soviet Armenia. It is
so organized as to suggest possible areas for research and study to those who wish
to explore and write in the Armenian field. The following outline of one of the
main divisions of the bibliography constitutes the headings under which are filed
the references pertaining to the respective subjects. That, together with the refer-
ences which follow, indicates the extent to which thoroughness has been attained in
the preparation of the new bibliography. The same subjects will be brought up to
date from time to time, when older references — left out from the present list due
to insufficient bibliographical data — will be included.

The Armenian Question

I. The Armenian Question — general discussion and histoiy
II. The Armenian Question and the West up to World War I — general discussion

and history
III. The Armenian Question by Countries — to date

1. Armenia and the Armenians (mainly up to the first World War)

2. Britain (to be further subdivided)

3. Denmark

4. France

5. Germany and Austria-Hungary

6. Greece

7. Holland

8. India

9. Italy

10. Kurds and Kurdistan

11. Lebanon

12. Poland

13. Russia

14. The Soviet Union

15. Switzerland

10. Tvirkey — general discussion and history

a. Prior to 1908

b. From 1908 to 1913

c. After 1918

d. Atrocities — general discussion and history

(1) Before 1894

(2) From 1894 to 1908

223

ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

(3) In CUicia in 1909

(4) From 1914 to 1918

(5) After 1918— under Kemalist Tiirkey

(6) During World War II and After. 1939-

e. Genocide and Histocide

f. Pan-Turanism

17. The united States (to be further subdivided)

18. Yugoslavia

IV. The Armenian Question by Special Subjects— to date

1. The Church

2. Missions

3. Repatriation

4. The Territorial Issue

V. The Armenian Question During World War I and After— general discussion and
history

1. Armenia and the Armenians (mainly Turkish Armenia)

2. Transcaucasia and the Armenian Republic of 1918-1920

3. The West, 1914-1926

a. Brest-Litovsk

b. The Peace Conference

c. Sevres

d. Kars— 1920 and 1921

e. Lausanne

f. The League of Nations

4. Cilicia

5. After Lausanne, 1927-1939

VI. The Armenian Question During World War II and After
(Chronologically arranged)

The Armenian Question— General Discussion

And History

Asian, Kevork. Armenia and the Armenians from the Earliest Times Until the Great War
1914). Translated from the French by Pierre Crabites ; with a preface on the Evolu-
tion of the Armenian Question by the translator. New York, The Macmilllan Co., 1920.
xxix, 138 p.. This is a translation of the author's £tudes Historigues sur le Peuple
Armenien.

Basmadijian, K. J. Histoire Moderne des Armeniens, Depuis la chute du royaume jusqu'd
Traits de Sevres (1375-1920). Les guerres Russo-Turques, les guerres Russo-Persanes,
les guerres Perso-Turques, les soulevements des Armeniens, la question Armenienne.
Preface par J. de Morgan. Nouvelle edition revue et augmentee. Paris, J. Gamber,
1922. X, 240 p. The earlier edition brought the subject up to 1916 and was published
in 1917, same place, same publisher, viii, 174 p.

Bryce, James, viscount. Transcaucasia and Ararat. Being notes of a vacation tour in
the autumn of 1876. Fourth edition revised, with a supplementary chapter on the re-
cent history of the Armenian question. London, Macmillan and Co., Ltd. ; New York,
The Macmillan Co., 1896, xix, 526 p. The first edition was published in 1877.

Cahuet, Alberic. La Question d'Orient dans I'Histoire Contemporaine, 1821-1905. Preface
de M. Frederic Passy. Paris, 1905. iii, 537 pp.

Curzon, Robert, Baron de la Zouche. Armenia: A Year at Erzeroom, and on the Frontiers of
Russia, Turkey, and Persia. Third edition. London, 1854. A later edition appeared in
London in 1911.

Dillon, Emile Joseph. "The Condition of Armenia." Contemporary Review, London, 1895,
LXVII, 153-189.

Driault, Edouard. La Question d'Orient. Depuis ses origins jusqu'a nos jours. Preface de
M. Gabriel Monod. 5. ed. rev. et cor. Ouvrage recompense par I'lnstitut. Paris, F.
Alcan, 1912, xv, 407 p. Bibliotheque d'Histoire Contemporaine. 6. ed. mise au courant
des demiers evenements. Paris, Alcan, 1914, xv, 411. 7 ed mise au courant des derniers
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F. Alcan, 1921. xv, 470 p.

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b6rats, protocoles , . . lois memorandums, etc. Paris, Plon-Nourrit et Cie., 1904. ii.
645 p. ' '

Shupp, Paul Frederick. The European Powers and the Near Eastern Question, 1806-1807.
New York, Columbia University Press; London, P. S. King and Son, Ltd., 1931. 576 p.
Columbia University Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, ed. by the facuUy
of political science of Columbia University, no. 349. Issued also as a Ph.D. thesis of
Columbia University. Bibliography, pp. 559-565.

226

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Publications Received

Khachatur Abovian. Rany Armenii [Wounds of Armenia]. M. Abeghian Literary Institute
of the Armenian Academy of Sciences. Yerevan-Moscow, Hai-pet-hrat, 1948. 7-321 p.
(Russian).
American Journal of Archeology, January 1950, vol, LIV, no. 1. 96, [17] p. Published by the

Archeological Institute of America, Cambridge, Mass.
Babken Arakelian. Haikakan Patkerakandaknere IV -VII Barer oum [Armenian Reliefs of
the Fourth to the Seventh Centuries]. Yerevan, Publication of the Armenian Academy
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Armenian Academy of Sciences.
Armenian Guardian, New York. Monthly in English published by the Armenian Church

Youth Organization of the Diocese of the Armenian Church in North America.
Armenian Tribune, New York. English weekly for Armenian youth. Published by the Ar-
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Impr. Turabian, 1945. 61 p.
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A. A. Bedikian. Jrag. [Lamp]. Book II. New York, 1948. 186 p. M. M. Chamalian Publica-
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A. Bakikhanov. Sbornik Statei po Istorii Azerbaidzhana [A Collection of Articles on the
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[British Museum.] Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, etc., in the British Museum.
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Bulletin of the Near East Society, New York, January 1949 to June 1950, Vol. Ill, nos.

1 to 6.
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part 2, 1950. iii, 265-550 p.
Chahagir [Torch Bearer]. Monthly organ of the Armenian Evangelical Union of California.
Gherepnin, L. V. Ruskie Feodalnye Arkhivi XIV-XV Vekov [Russian Feudal Archives of
the XIV-XV Centuries]. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of History. Moscow-
Leningrad, USSR Academy of Sciences, 1948. 472 p. (Russian.)
Y. A. Cosminsky. Mitchin Dareri Patmoutiun [History of the Middle Ages]. Textbook for
the sixth and seventh grades of intermediate schools. Authorized by the Ministry of
Education of the Armenian SSR. Yerevan, Hai-pet-hrat, 1950. 396 p. lUus., maps.
Institute of History of the Armenian Academy of Sciences.
Vahram Dadrian. Hing Taterakhagher yev Tservadz Edcher [Five Plays and Scattered

Pages]. Boston, Haig H. Toumayan Press, 1950. 350 p. $2.00.
Drvagner Haikakan Teghernen yev Veradzenount [Chapters from the Armenian Tragedy
and Rebirth]. Report on the 1915 massacres from European, American and Armenian
sources. Paris, Imprimerie H. Turabian, 1947. 205 p.
The Eastern Churches Quarterly, Ramsgate, England, Spring 1950, vol. VIII, no. 5.
Eritassard Hayastan [Young Armenia]. New York. Bi-weekly organ of the S.D. Hunchakian

Party.
Forward Through the Ages. Annual report of the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions for the year 1949. Boston, American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions. 136 p.
Boghos Gadarigian. Mar adz Djragner {Havav Gugheen Yegherne) [Lights That Have Gone

Out (The Tragedy of the Village of Havav)]. New York, Gotchnag Press, 1950. 136 p.
The Genocide Convention. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Foreign
Relations, United States Senate, Eighty-first Congress, Second Session on Executive O.
The International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
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tn^o* o=^ Heroism of the People of the Caucasus. Institute of History. Baku, Az-Fan.
iy4J. 35 p. Azerbaijan Affiliate, USSR Academy of Sciences. (Russian.)
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Great Britain and the East. London, June and July 1950, vol. LXVI, nos. 1809 and 1810.

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ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

V. A. Grekov. Krestyane Na Rusi [The Peasantry in Russia]. From ancient times to the
XVII century. Moscow-Leningrad, USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of History,
1946. 961 p. (Russian).

M. Gorki. Terkeri Zhoghovadzou [Collected Works]. Ed, by Simak, Arazi and H. Mekrtichian.
Vol. V. Yerevan, Hai-pet-hrat, 1950. 598 p.

Grigor of Akanc. "History of the Nation of the Archers (The Mongols). Hitherto ascribed
to Maghak'ia the Monk. The Armenian text, edited with an English translation and
notes by Robert P. Blake and Richard N. Frye." Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Yenching Institute, December 1949, vol .XII, nos. 3 and 4.
pp. 269-399. Pages 400-443 consists of an article by Francis Woodman Cleaves, "The
Mongolian Names and Terms in the History of the Nation of the Archers, by Grigor
of Akanc'."

Groong [Crane], Philadelphia. Independent Armenian and English weekly.

Haikakan SSR Constitutsia [Armenian SSR Constitution]. Syllabus for the Intermediate
School. Yerevan, Hai-pet-hrat, 1949. 112 p.

H. Hairapetian and A. Bloozian. Maireni Lezoo. Entertsaran. (The Mother Ton^e.
Reader). For the first grade. Authorized by the Ministry of Education of the Armenian
SSR. Yerevan, Hai-pet-hrat, 1950. 122 p.

Hayastanyaitz Tegeghetzy [The Armenian Church], New York. Official organ, monthly, of the
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Hoosharar [The Prompter], New York. Monthly organ of the Armenian General Benevolent
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International Affairs, London. AprU and July 1950, vol. XXVI, nos. 2 and 3. Quarterly
published by the Royal Institute of International Affairs.

Interpretation. A Journal of Bible and Theology, Richmond, Va. April 1950, vol. IV, no. 2.
131-256 p.

The Journal of Bible and Religion, April and July 1950, vol. XVIII, nos. 2 and 3. Published
by the National Association of Biblical Instructors.

Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, London, April 1950, vol. XXXVII, part II.
110-216 p.

Khronika Muhameda Takhira Al-Karakhi [Chronicles of Mohammed Takhir Al-Karakhi].
Institute of Eastern Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow-Leningrad,
Publication of the USSR Academy of Science, 1946. 21, 311 p. About the Dagestan
wars in the period of Shamil.

Levon Kazanjian. Veradzenount Van-Vaspurakani [Renaissance of Van-Vaspurakan]. Cul-
tural Golden Age (1850-1950). Boston, Toumayan Brothers, 1950. 325 p.

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Colonel Robert R. McCormick. Turkey. An address, March 25, 1950, broadcast over WGN,
WGNB and the Mutual Broadcasting System. 5 p.

Y. A. Manandian. Kratki Obzor Istorii Drevnei Armenii [A Short Survey of the History of
Ancient Armenia]. Moscow-Leningrad, Publication of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
1943. 55 p. (Russian).

Bishop Sion Manoogian. Hat Terusaghem [Armenian Jerusalem]. Boston, Baikar Press, 1948.
175 p. lUus.

Bishop Sion Manoogian, Khorhourt Vardanants [Meaning of Vardanants]. Boston, 1946. 62 p.

Bishop Sion Manoogian. Loosashogh Demker yev Kyank yev Khorhourt [Radiant Personal-
ities and Life and Mystery]. Boston, Haig H. Toumayan Press, 1949. 163 p.

Dikran Megount (Dikran Spear). Hisnamyak Hai Yeritsakan Tekeghetsvo [Jubilee of the
Armenian Presbyterian Church], 1898-1948. Weehauken, N. J. 1950. 64 p.

Vartan Melkonian. Seventh Heaven. Reflections and Humour. Basra, [Iraq], The Times
Press, 1947. 25 p.

Vartan Melkonian. Tour Oriental Polyglossary. Beirut, Lebanon, The Press of Loussartsag,
1943. 79 p.

Zareh Melkonian. Terdchankutiun. Kertvadzner, 1947-1950 [Happiness. Essays]. Beirut,
Lebanon, Der Sahagian Press, 1950. 143 p. Publication of Ani monthly, no. 2. $1.00.
Levon Mesrop. Kakhardogh Lire yev Nergaghtogh Dsin [The Bewitching Mountain and the
Repartriating Horse]. Paris, B. Elekian Press, 1949. 396 p. 550 franks, or 20 shillings,
or $2.50.
N. N. Miklukho-Makla. Djanaparhordoutiunner [Journeys]. Translated by S. Soukiasian.
Yerevan, Hai-pet-hrat, Division of Youth and Children's Literature, 1950. 399 p.
Illustrations by V. Milashevski.

(To be continued)

228

The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem

A Photographic Study

By the Very Reverend Serovpe Manoukian

Dean of the Armenian Seminary in Jerusalem

PRECIOUS MITER AND VAKAS
OF SHEGHTAYAKIR

(See note on page [242] of this pictorial supplement)

The Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem has a history of more than fifteen
hundred years. Throughout this period it has enjoyed equal rights in the ownership
of the Holy Places with the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.

During these centuries the city of Jerusalem has seen the rule of the Romans,
the Byzantines, the Arabs, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks, the British, and at
present of the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. As each
successive rule has given way to the other, as a result of wars, invasions and revolu-
tions, the Armenian and the other religious communities in the city have been
subjected to uncertainty as to their rights and properties.

The recent termination of the British mandate over Palestine and the conflict
which followed between Arabs and Jews for its possession, have not been an excep-
tion to this historic pattern. The resulting present unnatural situation of Jerusalem
and the uncertainties concerning the future of its administration are responsible for
the state of flux of the Armenian and the other patriarchates of the city, especially as
regards their status and their economic interests.

*As a complement to this photographic study will appear in a later issue of Armenian
Affairs a brief history of the Patriarchate by Serovpe Vardapet. The pictures in this section

(Continued on last page)

The Cathedral of St. James is built on the site of the house of St. James, the
brother of Our Lord and the first bishop of Jerusalem. The throne to the left in the
picture surmounted by an onion-shaped cupola represents St. James' Throne. The
modest throne to the right, below, is the one ordinarily used by the Patriarch. St.
James' Throne is an object of reverence. Once a year, on the occasion of the feast of
St. James, His Beatitude the Patriarch ascends this apostolic chair, and remains there
from the "Gloria in Excelsis" to the end of the service, at the conclusion of which he
receives the obeisances of the Brotherhood with the ceremonial kissing of his hand.
The only other time this ceremony is repeated is on the occasion of the enthronement
of a new Patriarch.

FRONT OF THE BEMA AND CHANCEL

In the 1640's Catholicos Philippus Agh-
baketsi visited Jerusalem, when he had
the entire chancel decorated with beau-
tiful mosaics, while the front of the
bema (the elevation at the end of the
chancel) with frescoes of Persian style.
Both are works of exceptional taste and
delicate artistry, which have been skil-
fully blended with the porcelain walls,
old paintings and gilt altars of the
sanctuary.

THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY
ARCHANGELS

The residence of Annas, the highpriest
of the time of Christ, where Jesus was
taken and imprisoned for a while. The
olive tree to which our Lord was bound
and beaten with stripes still exists, for
which reason the natives call it Der-el-
Zeitoun [Monastery of the Olive-tree].
It is the parish church of the Armenians
in Jerusalem; and within the walls of
its grounds live more than fifteen Sisters
of the Monastery.

''S~?^^k^^hr-*

THE PRINCIPAL ALTAR

The principal altar of St. James Cathedral, exquisite in beauty and grandeur, decorated
with carvings in hardwood, and gilded throughout, the work of the great Patriarch,

Sheghtayakir, in 1750,

THE CHAPEL OF GELKHADIR

The Chapel is built within the south wall of the Cathedral. To the left is the entrance
that leads to the Chapel of St. Minass, where the vestments and other treasures of the
Monastery are kept. These two chapels are the oldest parts of the Monastery. The

door of the Chapel of Gelkha-
dir is lavishly decorated with
mother of pearl, and is a rare
example of the best Oriental
art of its kind.

CHRISTMAS CELEBRATION IN

BETHLEHEM ^

Christmas is celebrated in Jerusalem
on January 6, according to the old
calendar, (Jan. 19 according to the
nev\^ calendar.) The day before, at ten
o'clock, the great bell of St. James
Cathedral in Jerusalem peals, and the
entire Brotherhood starts for Bethle-
hem in an immense procession of car-
riages, led by six armed gendarmes, in
honor of the Patriarch, who is re-
ceived at the public square in Bethle-
hem by a large multitude and govern-
ment ofhcials.

The picture represents the proces-
sion in 1950, met by the Arab Legion.

After the all-night service, the
Brotherhood and the pilgrims return
to Jerusalem in procession,

"---^gl

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f^s> r» •

CLASS OF DEACONS

The class of deacons of the
Patriarchate (1924-1930) who
studied as beneficiaries of the
five-year scholarships established
by the late Badrig Gulbenkian.
In the front row, center, is
Patriarch Yeghishe Tourian; to
his right is Bishop Papken, later
Coadjutor Catholicos of Cilicia;
to his left is Patriarch Mesrob,
then dean of the Seminary of
the Patriarchate; next to the
latter is Canon Bridgeman of
the Episcopal Church in America.
In the middle of the second row
is Patriarch Cyril II, then sub-
dean of the Seminary. To his
right is Bishop Sion; to whose
right, Zgon Vardapet. The first
deacon on the extreme left of
the same row is the Very Rever-
end Serovpe Manoukian, at
present in the United States as
Patriarchal Delegate to raise
funds for the needy and
the Armenian Patriarchate of
Jerusalem.

', * : •; i

TWO PRICELESS CHALICES

Gold chalice of many colors, decorated by

stippling. Gift of the Armenian colony in

Egypt; work of Armenian goldsmiths of

Smyrna.

Diamond-studded gold chalice, with engrav-
ings of scenes from the life of Christ.

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One of the priceless embroidered hangings of the Chapel of Gelkhadir — two angels
presenting the head of the Apostle St. James in a shroud, to the Mother of God.
Gelkhadir is the tomb of the head of St. James, one of the Twelve, brother of John the
Evangelist, and one of the sons of Zebedee. The two brothers were known as "The Sons
of Thunder." James, who was beheaded by Herod in A.D. 44, was the first of the Apostles
to be martyred. The faithful brought his head to Jerusalem and buried it in the home
of James the Brother of Our Lord, the first bishop of Jerusalem. The latter was buried
there, too. On the site of these two graves the Armenians later built the Cathdral
which commemorates their names. The Chapel of Gelkhadir and the Tomb of
Tyarneghbar, the brother of Our Lord, are within the Cathedral. The two James's are
the patron saints of the Armenian Patriarcliate of Jerusalem,

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THE TOMB OF CHRIST IN THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHER

In the center of the Church cf the Holy Sepulcher is the edicule built over the Tomb of
Christ, then newly hewn in the rock from where Our Lord arose. A large marble slab is
placed over the tomb. The interior as well as the exterior of the edicule is decorated with
images and lamps by the three main religious communities — Greek, Latin, and
Armenian — which are the custodians of the principal international Christian Holy
Places. The order of daily celebrations of the liturgy in the edicule of the Tomb of
Christ is established as follows: the Greek Liturgy from 1:00 to 3:00 A.M., the Armenian
Liturgy from 3:00 to 5:00 A.M.. and the Latin Mass from 5:00 to 7:00 A.M.

THE ENTRANCE TO SOORP ASTVADZAMAYR, THE CHURCH OF ST. MARY

Soorp Astvadzamayr, in the valley of Gethsemane, where the Holy Virgin is buried,
is the oldest and most imposing church edifice in Jerusalem, owned jointly by Armenians
and Greeks. It is surrounded by the historic Garden of Gethsemane, part of which is
the property of the Armenians, and the other part of the Greeks.

On the tomb of the Virgin, which is in the center of the church, daily mass is said
by the Armenians and the Greeks, according to their respective rites. The Armenian,
mass is celebrated by a vardapet, a member of the celibate clergy with rank below that
of bishop, who visits the church for the purpose, accompanied by choristers.

EMBROIDERED BAZPAN

Embroidered and pearl-studded bazpan
(cuff) worn by celebrant of mass. The
writing in Armenian at the lower end
of the pair of bazpans states that it
was made for the use of Patriarch
Hovhannes in 1171, according to the
Armenian calendar, or in A.D. 1723.

gg^g^^

THE CEREMONY OF THE HOLY FIRE

The ceremony held on Easter eve, when all lights in
the Church of the Holy Sepulcher are put out and
thousands of the faithful meet at the sanctuary. The
procession forms around the tomb of Christ, when
an Armenian bishop and the Patriarch of thri
Greeks enter the Holy Sepulcher with bundles of
candles in their hands, which they light and give
out as a symbol of the resurrection of Christ, after
which starts the Armenian procession. The picture
represents the overflow crowd from the sanctuary
in the courtyard.

CHURCH OF ST. TOROS

Built within the walls of St. James Monastery by the Armenian King Leo, in
memory of his son Toros, who suffered martyrdom in battle. It is a beautiful and
lovely church, where four thousand Armenian illuminated manuscripts are kept.

The Vardapet in the corner is the late Patriarch Cyril II, who was at one time
the curator of this manuscript library.

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THE MONASTERY AT BETHLEHEM

This is the Armenian Monastery, next to the Church of the Nativity in
Bethlehem. Here hve three vardapets, choristers and lay members of the Brother-
hood, as custodians of the rights of the Armenians, and conduct the dail,y
services. In the picture are a number of the clergy and monastics. Within the
walls of the Monastery is a separate Armenian church, and accommodations
for pilgrims.

The Vardapet in the center of the picture who wears a cross is the great hero
of Zeitoun, the mountain fastness in Cilicia where the native Armenians success-
fully resisted the Turkish armies for a long time, until the tragic days of the
first world war.

THE GREAT HALL OF THE PATRIARCHATE

The spacious, beautiful hall built by Patriarch Hovhannes Ismirtsi, decorated with the
paintings of Armenian Patriarclis and the autographed pictures of European royalty
and other dignitaries. The pictures were presented on the occasion of visits and other
historic circumstances. The pictures across the hall ai'e those of King George V and
Queen Max'y of England, presented in 1929 on the occasion of the jubilee of Patriarch

Yeghishe Tourian.

f I

A GROUP OF DEACONS IN THE COURT OF THE CATHEDRAL

St. Stephen's Day is the great day of the deacons. On that occasion

they put on their most elaborate vestments and conduct all the

church services. The fifth from the right is Bishop Tiran, primate

of the Armenian Church in North America.

KHATCHKAR

Old Armenian style khatchkar, inset in the wall of
the Court of St. James Cathedral. A khatchkar is a
slender, flagstone or stone slab, on which is executed
decorative crosses by sculpture, and which is placed at
shrines and on the tombs of notable people. The
exterior and interior walls of churches in Jerusalem
are decorated with similar khatchkars by the pious.
Frequently the inscriptions on these stones are of
great historic value. The artistic skill which they
represent is sometimes of the highest quality.

(Continued from page [229] of this pictorial
supplement)

Diamond-studded and embroidered miter, vakas
(collar worn by the Patriarch while officiating at
mass) and artakhurak (headband of the same) of
Patriarch Grigor Sheghtayakir (The Chain-bearer) .
In the 1700's, in the days of this Patriarch, the Ar-
menian Monastery in Jerusalem was under Moslem
rule. At that time the Monastery was in dire financial
distress and the church vestments were left in secur-
ity against debts.

Patriarch Sheghtayakir, wearing an iron chain to
symbolize the plight of the Monastery, visited the
Armenian settlements everywhere to raise money for
the Monastery. After meeting all the debts and
redeeming the church vestments he repaired and
further embellished the monastery and the church
edifices with new gifts.

The present splendid condition of St. James Cathe-
dral is the fruit of his painstaking effort and delica.te
taste. His chain is preserved to this day in the
Cathedral.

I'S^n :•

THE ENTRANCE TO THE
MONASTERY

The ancient and impressive entrance
to the Monastery opens on Armenian
Street. The thick heavy iron gate
is closed at nightfall, in keeping with
the rules of the Monastery, and the
keys are delivered to the Patriarch,
who returns them when the doors
are to open at the ringing of the
church bell at daybreak.

THE COURT OF
ST. JAMES CATHEDRAL

The Court of St. James
Cathedral, which in the past
has served as the mausoleum
of Patriarchs; and the main
entrance leading into the
sanctuary.

Pualicatian6.

of the
ARMENIAN NATIONAL COUNCIL OF AMERICA

Armenia Reborn. By Charles A. Vertanes with an mtroducnon by
Robert W. Searle. Armenian National Council of America, N. Y., 1947.
216 p. Cloth. 8 vo. Illustrated. Topical bibliography. Appendices. Map.
Index. $3.00.

Armenia Reborn contains a brief history of the Armenian people since
Sumerian times; a survey of the Armenian Question from the Treaty of
San Stefano to the Treaty of Lausanne; a detailed description of the
achievements of the Armenian Republic since 1920; a discussion of the
present status of the Armenian Question and of current efforts in its behalf.
Highly recommended by church and lay leaders, including Bishop Noel Porter,
Frederick L. Fagley, J. M. Dawson and L. P. Chambers. Pierre Van Paassen
characterizes it as : "highly informative and brilliantly written . . . invaluable
in an understanding of the situation in a very inflammable corner of the Near Easr
... a distinct service to the Armenian people and to the triumph of justice in
humanity."

The Plea of the Little People. By Dr. F. L. Fagley^ 4 p. Free.
The Armenian Crisis, 1912-1914. By Roderig H. Davison^ re-

printetd from the American Historical Review. 25 p. 15c.
The Beginnings of Genocide. By Joseph Guttman, 19 p. 10c.
An Appeal to the UN by the World Armenian Congress.

1947, 11 p. 25c.
Memorandum on the Proposed Aid to Greece and Turkey.

Presented to the Government of the U. S. by the A.N.C.A., March, 1947,

5 p. 15c.
A Memorandum on the Armenian Question. Presented to the

Council of Foreign Ministers, March 7, 1947. 22 p. 25c.
At the Foot of Ararat. By Hewlett Johnson^ Dean of Canterbury,

25 p. 15c.
Armenian Exhibit and Festival, 1949. With colored plates of

Terlemezian's Ararat and scene from the Battle of Vartanantz, 4 p. 15c.
Teghekatoo. Monthly bulletin (in Armenian) of the Armenian National

Council of America, No. 1, June 1, 1949 to date. Subscription: $1.00 per

year.

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

Armenian Folk Tales. Text by I. Khatchatriantz. Illustrations by
Martyros Saryan, with an introduction by Charles A. Vertanes. Colonial
House, Philadelphia, 1946. 141 p. Cloth. 8 vo. $2.00.

Armenian Folk Tales "is unquestionably a contribution to both Enghsh children's
literature and English folk literature." — from the Introduction.
Armenia and the Byzantine Empire. By Sirarpie Der Nersessian.

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1947. 141 p. $3.00.
20,000 Clergymen for Armenia. Al Report of the Deputation of the
American Church Committee for Armenia to the U. S. Department of
State. 15c.
A Petition from the American Clergy on Behalf of the Armen-
ian Cause. The American Church Committee for Armenia, 4 p. Fr-ee.

Order from ARMENIAN AFFAIRS

144 E. 24th Street, New York 10, N. Y.

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